Timeline

Divine Council

The divine council, a celestial, bureaucratic assembly of gods or divine beings, is a prominent theme in ancient Near Eastern texts and found throughout the Hebrew Bible. Beginning in Mesopotamian, Canaanite, and Ugaritic literature, these councils typically feature a high god presiding over lesser deities who serve as advisors or functionaries. This imagery appears in many biblical passages where YHWH is depicted as ruling over a heavenly court.

Timeline

Epic of Gilgamesh XI 7 / Psalm 82:1
1. 2100 BCE
  
  Epic of Gilgamesh XI 7
  
  Ancient Near East, Babylonian
  
  1 Gilgameš spoke to him, to Ūta-napišti the Far-Away. 2 ‘As I look at you, Ūta-napišti, 3 your form is not different, you are just like me, 4 you are not different at all, you are just like me. 5 I was fully intent on doing battle with you, 6 [but] in your presence my hand is held back. 7 How was it you attended the gods’ assembly, and found life?’ 8 Ūta-napišti spoke to him, to Gilgameš: 9 ‘I will disclose to you, Gilgameš, a secret matter, 10 and I will tell you a mystery of the gods.
2. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 82:1
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 A psalm of Asaph. God stands in the assembly of El; in the midst of the gods he renders judgment. 2 He says, “How long will you make unjust legal decisions and show favoritism to the wicked? (Selah) 3 Defend the cause of the poor and the fatherless. Vindicate the oppressed and suffering.
Epic of Gilgamesh XI 119 / Psalm 82:1
1. 2100 BCE
  
  Epic of Gilgamesh XI 119
  
  Ancient Near East, Babylonian
  
  114 Even the gods took fright at the Deluge! 115 They withdrew, they went up to the heaven of Anu. 116 The gods curled up like dogs, lying out in the open. 117 The goddess, screaming like a woman in childbirth, 118 Bēlet-ilī, the sweet-voiced, wailed aloud: 119 “Indeed the past has truly turned to clay, 120 because I spoke evil in the assembly of the gods. 121 How was it I spoke evil in the assembly of the gods, 122 (and) declared a war to destroy my people? 123 It is I that gave birth (to them)! They are my people! 124 (Now) like so many fish they fill the sea.” 125 The gods, the Anunnaki, were weeping with her, 126 wet-faced with sorrow, they were weeping [with her], 127 their lips were parched, being stricken with fever. 128 For six days and (seven) nights,
2. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 82:1
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 A psalm of Asaph. God stands in the assembly of El; in the midst of the gods he renders judgment. 2 He says, “How long will you make unjust legal decisions and show favoritism to the wicked? (Selah) 3 Defend the cause of the poor and the fatherless. Vindicate the oppressed and suffering.
Eridu Genesis IV / Genesis 6:13
1. 1600 BCE
  
  Eridu Genesis IV
  
  Ancient Near East, Sumerian
  
  2 Ziugiddu, standing beside it, heard [...] 3 Stand at the wall on my left and [...] 4 At the wall, I will speak to you. 5 My holy one, listen to me 6 By our hand a rainstorm [...] will be sent; 7 To destroy the seed of humankind, to [...], 8 is the decision, the declaration of the assembly of the gods, whose verdict cannot be reversed, 9 The commands of Anu and Enlil cannot be overturned, 10 Its (or their) kingdom, its (or their) rule has ended,
2. 750–400 BCE
  
  Genesis 6:13
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  12 God saw the earth, and indeed it was ruined, for all living creatures on the earth were sinful. 13 So God said to Noah, “I have decided that all living creatures must die, for the earth is filled with violence because of them. Now I am about to destroy them and the earth. 14 Make for yourself an ark of cypress wood. Make rooms in the ark, and cover it with pitch inside and out. 15 This is how you should make it: The ark is to be 450 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 45 feet high. 16 Make a roof for the ark and finish it, leaving 18 inches from the top. Put a door in the side of the ark, and make lower, middle, and upper decks.
KTU 1.2 I:13 / Psalm 82:1
1. 1350–1185 BCE
  
  KTU 1.2 I:13
  
  Ancient Near East, Ugaritic
  
  The Father of the Bright One (has) two wives... Yamm sent messengers, Ruler Nahar an embassy. With great rejoicing they flew heavenwards their nostrils flaring. Depart, divine assistants, do not stay! Indeed, set your faces towards the convocation of the Council, towards the divine mountain. At the feet of El you shall fall you shall honour the convocation of the Council! Standing upright, you shall then speak, declaring your message. And you shall say to Bull your father El, declare to the convocation of the Council: Message of Yamm, your master, of your lord, Ruler Nahar: Give up the god whom you obey, the one whom you obey, Tempest! Give up Baal and his retinue, the Son of Dagan, whose gold I shall seize! The divine assistants depart; they do not delay. Then they set their faces towards the divine mountain, towards the convocation of the Council. Now the gods were sitting to eat,
2. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 82:1
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 A psalm of Asaph. God stands in the assembly of El; in the midst of the gods he renders judgment. 2 He says, “How long will you make unjust legal decisions and show favoritism to the wicked? (Selah) 3 Defend the cause of the poor and the fatherless. Vindicate the oppressed and suffering. 4 Rescue the poor and needy. Deliver them from the power of the wicked. 5 They neither know nor understand. They stumble around in the dark, while all the foundations of the earth crumble. 6 I thought, ‘You are gods; all of you are sons of the Most High.’ 7 Yet you will die like mortals; you will fall like all the other rulers.” 8 Rise up, O God, and execute judgment on the earth! For you own all the nations.
KTU 1.4 VI:46 / Deuteronomy 32:8
1. 1350–1185 BCE
  
  KTU 1.4 VI:46
  
  Ancient Near East, Ugaritic
  
  Baal organizes for his dwelling Haddu arranges for his palace. He slaughters large livestock and small: He slaughters bulls and fatling rams Year-old calves Sheep in droves, and kids. He invites his siblings into his house His kin within his palace; He invites the seventy sons of Athirat. He offers the gods rams Offers the goddesses ewes. He offers the gods bulls Offers the goddesses cows. He offers the gods thrones Offers the goddesses seats.
2. 750–400 BCE
  
  Deuteronomy 32:8
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  7 Remember the ancient days; bear in mind the years of past generations. Ask your father and he will inform you, your elders, and they will tell you. 8 When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance, when he divided up humankind, he set the boundaries of the peoples, according to the number of the heavenly assembly. 9 For the Lord’s allotment is his people, Jacob is his special possession.
KTU 1.4 VI:39 / Exodus 24:11
1. 1350–1185 BCE
  
  KTU 1.4 VI:39
  
  Ancient Near East, Ugaritic
  
  Baal organizes for his dwelling Haddu arranges for his palace. He slaughters large livestock and small: He slaughters bulls and fatling rams Year-old calves Sheep in droves, and kids. He invites his siblings into his house His kin within his palace; He invites the seventy sons of Athirat. He offers the gods rams Offers the goddesses ewes. He offers the gods bulls Offers the goddesses cows. He offers the gods thrones Offers the goddesses seats. He offers the gods jars of wine Offers the goddesses cruets of wine. As the gods dine, drink A suckling of the breast is offered With a salted knife, a cut of fatling. They drink wine from goblets From gold cups, the blood of trees.
2. 750–400 BCE
  
  Exodus 24:11
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  5 He sent young Israelite men, and they offered burnt offerings and sacrificed young bulls for peace offerings to the Lord. 6 Moses took half of the blood and put it in bowls, and half of the blood he splashed on the altar. 7 He took the Book of the Covenant and read it aloud to the people, and they said, “We are willing to do and obey all that the Lord has spoken.” 8 So Moses took the blood and splashed it on the people and said, “This is the blood of the covenant that the Lord has made with you in accordance with all these words.” 9 Moses and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, and the seventy elders of Israel went up, 10 and they saw the God of Israel. Under his feet there was something like a pavement made of blue sapphire, clear like the sky itself. 11 But he did not lay a hand on the leaders of the Israelites, so they saw God, and they ate and they drank. 12 The Lord said to Moses, “Come up to me on the mountain and remain there, and I will give you the stone tablets with the law and the commandments that I have written, so that you may teach them.”
KTU 1.23:52 / Isaiah 14:13
1. 1350–1185 BCE
  
  KTU 1.23:52
  
  Ancient Near East, Ugaritic
  
  from kissing came conception, from embracing, impregnation. He sat and counted five months for growth, ten for the full completion. Both of them crouched and gave birth to Shahar and Shalim. Word was brought to El: The two wives of El have given birth! What have they borne? Shahar and Shalim have been born. Raise up an offering to Shapshu, the Great Lady, and to the stars who have been begotten.
2. 740–450 BCE
  
  Isaiah 14:13
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  11 Your splendor has been brought down to Sheol, as well as the sound of your stringed instruments. You lie on a bed of maggots, with a blanket of worms over you.’ 12 “Look how you have fallen from the sky, O shining one, son of the dawn! You have been cut down to the ground, O conqueror of the nations! 13 You said to yourself, ‘I will climb up to the sky. Above the stars of El I will set up my throne. I will rule on the mountain of assembly on the remote slopes of Zaphon. 14 I will climb up to the tops of the clouds; I will make myself like the Most High!’ 15 But you were brought down to Sheol, to the remote slopes of the Pit.
KAI 26.iii / Psalm 82:1
1. 1200 BCE
  
  KAI 26.iii
  
  Ancient Near East, Northwest Semitic
  
  But if any king of kings, or prince of princes, or any man who is a man of renown, should erase the name of Azatiwada from this gate and put (his own) name (on it), or even should he covet this city and tear out this gate which Azatiwada made, and make for it a different gate and put his name upon it whether he tears it out with covetousness or with hatred and evil he tears out this gate—then may Baʿal-Shamem and El Creator-of-Earth and the eternal Sun and the entire assembly of the sons of the gods blot out that kingdom and that king and that man!
2. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 82:1
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 A psalm of Asaph. God stands in the assembly of El; in the midst of the gods he renders judgment. 2 He says, “How long will you make unjust legal decisions and show favoritism to the wicked? (Selah) 3 Defend the cause of the poor and the fatherless. Vindicate the oppressed and suffering.
Genesis 1:26 / Isaiah 6:8
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Genesis 1:26
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  25 God made the wild animals according to their kinds, the cattle according to their kinds, and all the creatures that creep along the ground according to their kinds. God saw that it was good. 26 Then God said, “Let us make humankind in our image, after our likeness, so they may rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move on the earth.” 27 God created humankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them, male and female he created them.
2. 740–450 BCE
  
  Isaiah 6:8
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  6 But then one of the seraphs flew toward me. In his hand was a hot coal he had taken from the altar with tongs. 7 He touched my mouth with it and said, “Look, this coal has touched your lips. Your evil is removed; your sin is forgiven.” 8 I heard the voice of the Lord say, “Whom will I send? Who will go on our behalf?” I answered, “Here I am, send me!” 9 He said, “Go and tell these people: “‘Listen continually, but don’t understand. Look continually, but don’t perceive.’
Genesis 3:22 / Isaiah 6:8
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Genesis 3:22
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  21 The Lord God made garments from skin for Adam and his wife, and clothed them. 22 And the Lord God said, “Now that the man has become like one of us, knowing good and evil, he must not be allowed to stretch out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever.” 23 So the Lord God expelled him from the orchard in Eden to cultivate the ground from which he had been taken.
2. 740–450 BCE
  
  Isaiah 6:8
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  6 But then one of the seraphs flew toward me. In his hand was a hot coal he had taken from the altar with tongs. 7 He touched my mouth with it and said, “Look, this coal has touched your lips. Your evil is removed; your sin is forgiven.” 8 I heard the voice of the Lord say, “Whom will I send? Who will go on our behalf?” I answered, “Here I am, send me!” 9 He said, “Go and tell these people: “‘Listen continually, but don’t understand. Look continually, but don’t perceive.’
Genesis 11:7 / Isaiah 6:8
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Genesis 11:7
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  6 And the Lord said, “If as one people all sharing a common language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be beyond them. 7 Come, let’s go down and confuse their language so they won’t be able to understand each other.” 8 So the Lord scattered them from there across the face of the entire earth, and they stopped building the city.
2. 740–450 BCE
  
  Isaiah 6:8
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  6 But then one of the seraphs flew toward me. In his hand was a hot coal he had taken from the altar with tongs. 7 He touched my mouth with it and said, “Look, this coal has touched your lips. Your evil is removed; your sin is forgiven.” 8 I heard the voice of the Lord say, “Whom will I send? Who will go on our behalf?” I answered, “Here I am, send me!” 9 He said, “Go and tell these people: “‘Listen continually, but don’t understand. Look continually, but don’t perceive.’
Deuteronomy 4:19 / 2 Kings 17:16
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Deuteronomy 4:19
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  17 any kind of land animal, any bird that flies in the sky, 18 anything that crawls on the ground, or any fish in the deep waters under the earth. 19 When you look up to the sky and see the sun, moon, and stars—the whole heavenly host—you must not be seduced to worship and serve them, for the Lord your God has assigned them to all the people of the world. 20 You, however, the Lord has selected and brought from Egypt, that iron-smelting furnace, to be his special people as you are today. 21 But the Lord became angry with me because of you and vowed that I would never cross the Jordan nor enter the good land that he is about to give you.
2. 600–501 BCE
  
  2 Kings 17:16
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  15 They rejected his rules, the covenant he had made with their ancestors, and the laws he had commanded them to obey. They paid allegiance to worthless idols, and so became worthless to the Lord. They copied the practices of the surrounding nations in blatant disregard of the Lord’s command. 16 They abandoned all the commandments of the Lord their God; they made two metal calves and an Asherah pole, bowed down to all the stars in the sky, and worshiped Baal. 17 They passed their sons and daughters through the fire, and practiced divination and omen reading. They committed themselves to doing evil in the sight of the Lord and made him angry. 18 So the Lord was furious with Israel and rejected them; only the tribe of Judah was left.
Deuteronomy 4:19 / 2 Kings 21:3
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Deuteronomy 4:19
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  17 any kind of land animal, any bird that flies in the sky, 18 anything that crawls on the ground, or any fish in the deep waters under the earth. 19 When you look up to the sky and see the sun, moon, and stars—the whole heavenly host—you must not be seduced to worship and serve them, for the Lord your God has assigned them to all the people of the world. 20 You, however, the Lord has selected and brought from Egypt, that iron-smelting furnace, to be his special people as you are today. 21 But the Lord became angry with me because of you and vowed that I would never cross the Jordan nor enter the good land that he is about to give you.
2. 600–501 BCE
  
  2 Kings 21:3
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 Manasseh was twelve years old when he became king, and he reigned for fifty-five years in Jerusalem. His mother was Hephzibah. 2 He did evil in the sight of the Lord and committed the same horrible sins practiced by the nations whom the Lord drove out before the Israelites. 3 He rebuilt the high places that his father Hezekiah had destroyed; he set up altars for Baal and made an Asherah pole just as King Ahab of Israel had done. He bowed down to all the stars in the sky and worshiped them. 4 He built altars in the Lord’s temple, about which the Lord had said, “Jerusalem will be my home.” 5 In the two courtyards of the Lord’s temple he built altars for all the stars in the sky.
Deuteronomy 4:19 / 2 Kings 23:4
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Deuteronomy 4:19
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  17 any kind of land animal, any bird that flies in the sky, 18 anything that crawls on the ground, or any fish in the deep waters under the earth. 19 When you look up to the sky and see the sun, moon, and stars—the whole heavenly host—you must not be seduced to worship and serve them, for the Lord your God has assigned them to all the people of the world. 20 You, however, the Lord has selected and brought from Egypt, that iron-smelting furnace, to be his special people as you are today. 21 But the Lord became angry with me because of you and vowed that I would never cross the Jordan nor enter the good land that he is about to give you.
2. 600–501 BCE
  
  2 Kings 23:4
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  3 The king stood by the pillar and renewed the covenant before the Lord, agreeing to follow the Lord and to obey his commandments, laws, and rules with all his heart and being, by carrying out the terms of this covenant recorded on this scroll. All the people agreed to keep the covenant. 4 The king ordered Hilkiah the high priest, the high-ranking priests, and the guards to bring out of the Lord’s temple all the items that were used in the worship of Baal, Asherah, and all the stars of the sky. The king burned them outside of Jerusalem in the terraces of Kidron, and carried their ashes to Bethel. 5 He eliminated the pagan priests whom the kings of Judah had appointed to offer sacrifices on the high places in the cities of Judah and in the area right around Jerusalem. (They offered sacrifices to Baal, the sun god, the moon god, the constellations, and all the stars in the sky.)
Deuteronomy 4:19 / Deuteronomy 32:8
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Deuteronomy 4:19
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  17 any kind of land animal, any bird that flies in the sky, 18 anything that crawls on the ground, or any fish in the deep waters under the earth. 19 When you look up to the sky and see the sun, moon, and stars—the whole heavenly host—you must not be seduced to worship and serve them, for the Lord your God has assigned them to all the people of the world. 20 You, however, the Lord has selected and brought from Egypt, that iron-smelting furnace, to be his special people as you are today. 21 But the Lord became angry with me because of you and vowed that I would never cross the Jordan nor enter the good land that he is about to give you.
2. 750–400 BCE
  
  Deuteronomy 32:8
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  6 Is this how you repay the Lord, you foolish, unwise people? Is he not your father, your Creator? He has made you and established you. 7 Remember the ancient days; bear in mind the years of past generations. Ask your father and he will inform you, your elders, and they will tell you. 8 When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance, when he divided up humankind, he set the boundaries of the peoples, according to the number of the heavenly assembly. 9 For the Lord’s allotment is his people, Jacob is his special possession. 10 The Lord found him in a desolate land, in an empty wasteland where animals howl. He continually guarded him and taught him; he continually protected him like the pupil of his eye.
Deuteronomy 32:8 / Judges 11:24
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Deuteronomy 32:8
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  6 Is this how you repay the Lord, you foolish, unwise people? Is he not your father, your Creator? He has made you and established you. 7 Remember the ancient days; bear in mind the years of past generations. Ask your father and he will inform you, your elders, and they will tell you. 8 When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance, when he divided up humankind, he set the boundaries of the peoples, according to the number of the heavenly assembly. 9 For the Lord’s allotment is his people, Jacob is his special possession. 10 The Lord found him in a desolate land, in an empty wasteland where animals howl. He continually guarded him and taught him; he continually protected him like the pupil of his eye.
2. 600–501 BCE
  
  Judges 11:24
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  22 They took all the Amorite territory from the Arnon River on the south to the Jabbok River on the north, from the desert in the east to the Jordan in the west. 23 Since the Lord God of Israel has driven out the Amorites before his people Israel, do you think you can just take it from them? 24 You have the right to take what Chemosh your god gives you, but we will take the land of all whom the Lord our God has driven out before us. 25 Are you really better than Balak son of Zippor, king of Moab? Did he dare to quarrel with Israel? Did he dare to fight with them? 26 Israel has been living in Heshbon and its nearby towns, in Aroer and its nearby towns, and in all the cities along the Arnon for 300 years! Why did you not reclaim them during that time?
Deuteronomy 32:8 / LXX Deuteronomy 32:8
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Deuteronomy 32:8
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  6 Is this how you repay the Lord, you foolish, unwise people? Is he not your father, your Creator? He has made you and established you. 7 Remember the ancient days; bear in mind the years of past generations. Ask your father and he will inform you, your elders, and they will tell you. 8 When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance, when he divided up humankind, he set the boundaries of the peoples, according to the number of the heavenly assembly. 9 For the Lord’s allotment is his people, Jacob is his special possession. 10 The Lord found him in a desolate land, in an empty wasteland where animals howl. He continually guarded him and taught him; he continually protected him like the pupil of his eye.
2. 300–201 BCE
  
  LXX Deuteronomy 32:8
  
  Septuagint
  
  6 Do you thus repay the Lord? is the people thus foolish and unwise? did not he himself your father purchase you, and make you, and form you? 7 Remember the days of old, consider the years for past ages: ask your father, and he shall relate to you, your elders, and they shall tell you. 8 When the Most High divided the nations, when he separated the sons of Adam, he set the bounds of the nations according to the number of the angels of God. 9 And his people Jacob became the portion of the Lord, Israel was the line of his inheritance. 10 He maintained him in the wilderness, in burning thirst and a dry land: he led him about and instructed him, and kept him as the apple of an eye.
Deuteronomy 32:8 / Pseudo Jonathan Deuteronomy 32:9
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Deuteronomy 32:8
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  6 Is this how you repay the Lord, you foolish, unwise people? Is he not your father, your Creator? He has made you and established you. 7 Remember the ancient days; bear in mind the years of past generations. Ask your father and he will inform you, your elders, and they will tell you. 8 When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance, when he divided up humankind, he set the boundaries of the peoples, according to the number of the heavenly assembly. 9 For the Lord’s allotment is his people, Jacob is his special possession. 10 The Lord found him in a desolate land, in an empty wasteland where animals howl. He continually guarded him and taught him; he continually protected him like the pupil of his eye.
2. 300–1200 CE
  
  Pseudo Jonathan Deuteronomy 32:9
  
  Targum
  
  The beloved children have corrupted their good works, a blemish is found upon them; a perverse generation which have altered their works; so shall the order of this world"s judgment be altered upon them. Can you indeed so requite the Name of the Word of the Lord, O foolish people, and receive the law, yet not be made wise? Is He not your Father who bought you, who created you and established you? Remember the days of old; consider the years of every generation; read the books of the law, and they will teach you, and the books of the prophets, and they will tell you. When the Most High made allotment of the world unto the nations which proceeded from the sons of Noach, in the separation of the writings and languages of the children of men at the time of the division, He cast the lot among the seventy angels, the princes of the nations with whom is the revelation to oversee the city, even at that time He established the limits of the nations according to the sum of the number of the seventy souls of Israel who went down into Mizraim. And when the holy people fell to the lot of the Lord of all the world, Michael opened his lips and said: Let the good portion of the Name of the Lord"s Word be with Him. Gabriel opened his lips with thanksgivings, and said, Let the house of Jakob be the lot of His inheritance.
Deuteronomy 32:9 / Sirach 17:17
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Deuteronomy 32:9
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  7 Remember the ancient days; bear in mind the years of past generations. Ask your father and he will inform you, your elders, and they will tell you. 8 When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance, when he divided up humankind, he set the boundaries of the peoples, according to the number of the heavenly assembly. 9 For the Lord’s allotment is his people, Jacob is his special possession. 10 The Lord found him in a desolate land, in an empty wasteland where animals howl. He continually guarded him and taught him; he continually protected him like the pupil of his eye. 11 Like an eagle that stirs up its nest, that hovers over its young, so the Lord spread out his wings and took him, he lifted him up on his pinions.
2. 195–180 BCE
  
  Sirach 17:17
  
  Deuterocanon
  
  14 He said to them, “Beware of all unrighteousness.” So he gave them commandment, each man concerning his neighbor. 15 Their ways are ever before him. They will not be hidden from his eyes. 17 For every nation he appointed a ruler, but Israel is the Lord’s portion. 19 All their works are as clear as the sun before him. His eyes are continually upon their ways. 20 Their iniquities are not hidden from him. All their sins are before the Lord. 22 With him the alms of a man is as a signet. He will keep a man’s kindness as the pupil of the eye.
Deuteronomy 32:8 / Psalm 103:20
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Deuteronomy 32:8
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  7 Remember the ancient days; bear in mind the years of past generations. Ask your father and he will inform you, your elders, and they will tell you. 8 When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance, when he divided up humankind, he set the boundaries of the peoples, according to the number of the heavenly assembly. 9 For the Lord’s allotment is his people, Jacob is his special possession.
2. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 103:20
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  19 The Lord has established his throne in heaven; his kingdom extends over everything. 20 Praise the Lord, you angels of his, you powerful warriors who carry out his decrees and obey his orders. 21 Praise the Lord, all you warriors of his, you servants of his who carry out his desires. 22 Praise the Lord, all that he has made, in all the regions of his kingdom. Praise the Lord, O my soul.
Isaiah 1:17 / Psalm 82:3
1. 740–450 BCE
  
  Isaiah 1:17
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  15 When you spread out your hands in prayer, I look the other way; when you offer your many prayers, I do not listen because your hands are covered with blood. 16 Wash! Cleanse yourselves! Remove your sinful deeds from my sight. Stop sinning. 17 Learn to do what is right. Promote justice. Give the oppressed reason to celebrate. Take up the cause of the orphan. Defend the rights of the widow. 18 “Come, let’s consider your options,” says the Lord. “Though your sins have stained you like the color red, you can become white like snow; though they are as easy to see as the color scarlet, you can become white like wool. 19 If you have a willing attitude and obey, then you will again eat the good crops of the land.
2. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 82:3
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 A psalm of Asaph. God stands in the assembly of El; in the midst of the gods he renders judgment. 2 He says, “How long will you make unjust legal decisions and show favoritism to the wicked? (Selah) 3 Defend the cause of the poor and the fatherless. Vindicate the oppressed and suffering. 4 Rescue the poor and needy. Deliver them from the power of the wicked. 5 They neither know nor understand. They stumble around in the dark, while all the foundations of the earth crumble.
Isaiah 14:13 / Job 38:7
1. 740–450 BCE
  
  Isaiah 14:13
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  12 “Look how you have fallen from the sky, O shining one, son of the dawn! You have been cut down to the ground, O conqueror of the nations! 13 You said to yourself, ‘I will climb up to the sky. Above the stars of El I will set up my throne. I will rule on the mountain of assembly on the remote slopes of Zaphon. 14 I will climb up to the tops of the clouds; I will make myself like the Most High!’
2. 500–401 BCE
  
  Job 38:7
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  5 Who set its measurements—if you know—or who stretched a measuring line across it? 6 On what were its bases set, or who laid its cornerstone— 7 when the morning stars sang in chorus, and all the sons of God shouted for joy? 8 “Who shut up the sea with doors when it burst forth, coming out of the womb, 9 when I made the storm clouds its garment and thick darkness its swaddling band, 10 when I prescribed its limits and set in place its bolts and doors, 11 when I said, ‘To here you may come and no farther, here your proud waves will be confined’?
Isaiah 24:21 / Psalm 82:6
1. 740–450 BCE
  
  Isaiah 24:21
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  19 The earth is broken in pieces, the earth is ripped to shreds, the earth shakes violently. 20 The earth will stagger around like a drunk; it will sway back and forth like a hut in a windstorm. Its sin will weigh it down, and it will fall and never get up again. 21 At that time the Lord will punish the heavenly forces in the heavens and the earthly kings on the earth. 22 They will be imprisoned in a pit, locked up in a prison, and after staying there for a long time, they will be punished. 23 The full moon will be covered up, the bright sun will be darkened; for the Lord of Heaven’s Armies will rule on Mount Zion in Jerusalem in the presence of his assembly, in majestic splendor.
2. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 82:6
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  4 Rescue the poor and needy. Deliver them from the power of the wicked. 5 They neither know nor understand. They stumble around in the dark, while all the foundations of the earth crumble. 6 I thought, ‘You are gods; all of you are sons of the Most High.’ 7 Yet you will die like mortals; you will fall like all the other rulers.” 8 Rise up, O God, and execute judgment on the earth! For you own all the nations.
1 Kings 22:19 / Psalm 82:1
1. 600–501 BCE
  
  1 Kings 22:19
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  17 Micaiah said, “I saw all Israel scattered on the mountains like sheep that have no shepherd. Then the Lord said, ‘They have no master. They should go home in peace.’” 18 The king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, “Didn’t I tell you he does not prophesy prosperity for me, but disaster?” 19 Micaiah said, “That being the case, listen to the Lord’s message. I saw the Lord sitting on his throne, with all the heavenly assembly standing beside him on his right and on his left. 20 The Lord said, ‘Who will deceive Ahab, so he will attack Ramoth Gilead and die there?’ One said this and another that. 21 Then a spirit stepped forward and stood before the Lord. He said, ‘I will deceive him.’
2. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 82:1
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 A psalm of Asaph. God stands in the assembly of El; in the midst of the gods he renders judgment. 2 He says, “How long will you make unjust legal decisions and show favoritism to the wicked? (Selah) 3 Defend the cause of the poor and the fatherless. Vindicate the oppressed and suffering. 4 Rescue the poor and needy. Deliver them from the power of the wicked. 5 They neither know nor understand. They stumble around in the dark, while all the foundations of the earth crumble.
1 Kings 22:19 / Jonathan 1 Kings 22:19
1. 600–501 BCE
  
  1 Kings 22:19
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  18 The king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, “Didn’t I tell you he does not prophesy prosperity for me, but disaster?” 19 Micaiah said, “That being the case, listen to the Lord’s message. I saw the Lord sitting on his throne, with all the heavenly assembly standing beside him on his right and on his left. 20 The Lord said, ‘Who will deceive Ahab, so he will attack Ramoth Gilead and die there?’ One said this and another that.
2. 200–300 CE
  
  Jonathan 1 Kings 22:19
  
  Targum
  
  18 And the king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, 'Did I not tell you that he would not prophesy good concerning me, but evil?' 19 And Micaiah said, 'Therefore hear the word of the Lord: I saw the glory of the Lord resting on his throne, and all the host of heaven standing by him on his right hand and on his left. 20 And the Lord said, Who shall persuade Ahab, that he may go up and fall at Ramoth-Gilead? And one said on this manner, and another said on that manner.
1 Kings 22:19 / Job 2:1
1. 600–501 BCE
  
  1 Kings 22:19
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  19 Micaiah said, “That being the case, listen to the Lord’s message. I saw the Lord sitting on his throne, with all the heavenly assembly standing beside him on his right and on his left. 20 The Lord said, ‘Who will deceive Ahab, so he will attack Ramoth Gilead and die there?’ One said this and another that. 21 Then a spirit stepped forward and stood before the Lord. He said, ‘I will deceive him.’ 22 The Lord asked him, ‘How?’ He replied, ‘I will go out and be a lying spirit in the mouths of all his prophets.’ The Lord said, ‘Deceive and overpower him. Go out and do as you have proposed.’ 23 So now, look, the Lord has placed a lying spirit in the mouths of all these prophets of yours, but the Lord has decreed disaster for you.”
2. 500–401 BCE
  
  Job 2:1
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 Again the day came when the sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord, and Satan also arrived among them to present himself before the Lord. 2 And the Lord said to Satan, “Where have you come from?” Satan answered the Lord, “From roving about on the earth, and from walking back and forth across it.” 3 Then the Lord said to Satan, “Have you considered my servant Job? For there is no one like him on the earth, a pure and upright man, one who fears God and turns away from evil. And he still holds firmly to his integrity, so that you stirred me up to destroy him without reason.”
Psalm 29:1 / Psalm 96:7
1. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 29:1
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 A psalm of David. Acknowledge the Lord, you heavenly beings, acknowledge the Lord’s majesty and power. 2 Acknowledge the majesty of the Lord’s reputation. Worship the Lord in holy attire. 3 The Lord’s shout is heard over the water; the majestic God thunders, the Lord appears over the surging water.
2. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 96:7
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  5 For all the gods of the nations are worthless, but the Lord made the sky. 6 Majestic splendor emanates from him; his sanctuary is firmly established and beautiful. 7 Ascribe to the Lord, O families of the nations, ascribe to the Lord splendor and strength. 8 Ascribe to the Lord the splendor he deserves. Bring an offering and enter his courts. 9 Worship the Lord in holy attire. Tremble before him, all the earth.
Psalm 82:1 / LXX Psalm 81:1
1. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 82:1
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 A psalm of Asaph. God stands in the assembly of El; in the midst of the gods he renders judgment. 2 He says, “How long will you make unjust legal decisions and show favoritism to the wicked? (Selah) 3 Defend the cause of the poor and the fatherless. Vindicate the oppressed and suffering. 4 Rescue the poor and needy. Deliver them from the power of the wicked. 5 They neither know nor understand. They stumble around in the dark, while all the foundations of the earth crumble.
2. 100–1 BCE
  
  LXX Psalm 81:1
  
  Septuagint
  
  1 A Psalm for Asaph. God stands in the assembly of gods; and in the midst of them will judge gods. 2 How long will you judge unrighteously, and take the faces of sinners? Pause. 3 Judge the orphan and poor: do justice to the low and needy. 4 Rescue the needy, and deliver the poor out of the hand of the sinner. 5 They do not know, nor understand; they walk on in darkness: all the foundations of the earth shall be shaken.
Psalm 82:1 / Targum Psalm 82:1
1. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 82:1
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 A psalm of Asaph. God stands in the assembly of El; in the midst of the gods he renders judgment. 2 He says, “How long will you make unjust legal decisions and show favoritism to the wicked? (Selah) 3 Defend the cause of the poor and the fatherless. Vindicate the oppressed and suffering. 4 Rescue the poor and needy. Deliver them from the power of the wicked. 5 They neither know nor understand. They stumble around in the dark, while all the foundations of the earth crumble.
2. 200–600 CE
  
  Targum Psalm 82:1
  
  Targum
  
  1 A hymn composed by Asaph. God, his presence abides in the assembly of the righteous who are strong in Torah; he will give judgment in the midst of the righteous judges. 2 How long, O wicked, will you judge falsely, and lift up the faces of the wicked forever? 3 Judge the poor and the orphan; acquit the needy and the poor. 4 Save the poor and needy, from the hands of the wicked deliver them. 5 They do not know how to do good, and they do not understand the Torah, they walk in darkness; because of this, the pillars of the earth’s foundations shake.
Psalm 89:5 / Daniel 7:10
1. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 89:5
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  3 The Lord said, “I have made a covenant with my chosen one; I have made a promise on oath to David, my servant: 4 ‘I will give you an eternal dynasty and establish your throne throughout future generations.’” (Selah) 5 O Lord, the heavens praise your amazing deeds, as well as your faithfulness in the angelic assembly. 6 For who in the skies can compare to the Lord? Who is like the Lord among the heavenly beings,
2. 200–101 BCE
  
  Daniel 7:10
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  9 “While I was watching, thrones were set up, and the Ancient of Days took his seat. His attire was white like snow; the hair of his head was like lamb’s wool. His throne was ablaze with fire, and its wheels were all aflame. 10 A river of fire was streaming forth and proceeding from his presence. Many thousands were ministering to him; many tens of thousands stood ready to serve him. The court convened, and the books were opened. 11 “Then I kept on watching because of the arrogant words of the horn that was speaking. I was watching until the beast was killed and its body destroyed and thrown into the flaming fire.
Psalm 97:7 / LXX Psalm 96:7
1. 600–201 BCE
  
  Psalm 97:7
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  5 The mountains melt like wax before the Lord, before the Lord of the whole earth. 6 The sky declares his justice, and all the nations see his splendor. 7 All who worship idols are ashamed, those who boast about worthless idols. All the gods bow down before him. 8 Zion hears and rejoices, the towns of Judah are happy, because of your judgments, O Lord. 9 For you, O Lord, are the Most High over the whole earth; you are elevated high above all gods.
2. 100–1 BCE
  
  LXX Psalm 96:7
  
  Septuagint
  
  5 The mountains melted like wax at the presence of the Lord, at the presence of the Lord of the whole earth. 6 The heavens have declared his righteousness, and all the peoples have seen his glory. 7 Let all that worship carved images be ashamed, who boast of their idols; worship him, all you his angels. 8 Zion heard and rejoiced; and the daughters of Judea exulted, because of your judgments, Lord. 9 For you are Lord most high over all the earth; you are greatly exalted above all gods.
Zechariah 3:1 / Job 1:6
1. 500–401 BCE
  
  Zechariah 3:1
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 Next I saw Joshua the high priest standing before the angel of the Lord, with Satan standing at his right hand to accuse him. 2 The Lord said to Satan, “May the Lord rebuke you, Satan! May the Lord, who has chosen Jerusalem, rebuke you! Isn’t this man like a burning stick snatched from the fire?” 3 Now Joshua was dressed in filthy clothes as he stood there before the angel. 4 The angel spoke up to those standing all around, “Remove his filthy clothes.” Then he said to Joshua, “I have freely forgiven your iniquity and will dress you in fine clothing.”
2. 500–401 BCE
  
  Job 1:6
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  5 When the days of their feasting were finished, Job would send for them and sanctify them; he would get up early in the morning and offer burnt offerings according to the number of them all. For Job thought, “Perhaps my children have sinned and cursed God in their hearts.” This was Job’s customary practice. 6 Now the day came when the sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord—and Satan also arrived among them. 7 The Lord said to Satan, “Where have you come from?” And Satan answered the Lord, “From roving about on the earth, and from walking back and forth across it.” 8 So the Lord said to Satan, “Have you considered my servant Job? There is no one like him on the earth, a blameless and upright man, one who fears God and turns away from evil.”
Zechariah 3:1 / Mihr Yasht
1. 500–401 BCE
  
  Zechariah 3:1
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  1 Next I saw Joshua the high priest standing before the angel of the Lord, with Satan standing at his right hand to accuse him. 2 The Lord said to Satan, “May the Lord rebuke you, Satan! May the Lord, who has chosen Jerusalem, rebuke you! Isn’t this man like a burning stick snatched from the fire?” 3 Now Joshua was dressed in filthy clothes as he stood there before the angel. 4 The angel spoke up to those standing all around, “Remove his filthy clothes.” Then he said to Joshua, “I have freely forgiven your iniquity and will dress you in fine clothing.” 5 Then I spoke up, “Let a clean turban be put on his head.” So they put a clean turban on his head and clothed him, while the angel of the Lord stood nearby. 6 Then the angel of the Lord exhorted Joshua solemnly: 7 “The Lord of Heaven’s Armies says, ‘If you follow my ways and keep my requirements, you will be able to preside over my temple and attend to my courtyards, and I will allow you to come and go among these others who are standing by you.
2. 500–401 BCE
  
  Mihr Yasht
  
  Ancient Near East, Iranian
  
  We sacrifice unto Mithra, the lord of wide pastures, who is truth-speaking, a chief in assemblies, with a thousand ears, well-shapen, with ten thousand eyes, high, with full knowledge, strong, sleepless, and ever awake. At his right hand drives the good, holy Sraosha; at his left hand drives the tall and strong Rashnu; on all sides around him drive the waters, the plants, and the Fravashis of the faithful.
Zechariah 14:5 / Job 15:15
1. 500–401 BCE
  
  Zechariah 14:5
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  4 On that day his feet will stand on the Mount of Olives that lies to the east of Jerusalem, and the Mount of Olives will be split in half from east to west, leaving a great valley. Half the mountain will move northward and the other half southward. 5 Then you will escape through my mountain valley, for the valley of the mountains will extend to Azal. Indeed, you will flee as you fled from the earthquake in the days of King Uzziah of Judah. Then the Lord my God will come with all his holy ones with him. 6 On that day there will be no light—the sources of light in the heavens will congeal.
2. 500–401 BCE
  
  Job 15:15
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  12 Why has your heart carried you away, and why do your eyes flash, 13 when you turn your rage against God and allow such words to escape from your mouth? 14 What is man that he should be pure, or one born of woman, that he should be righteous? 15 If God places no trust in his holy ones, if even the heavens are not pure in his eyes, 16 how much less man, who is abominable and corrupt, who drinks in evil like water!
Daniel 4:17 / 3 Enoch 28:4
1. 200–101 BCE
  
  Daniel 4:17
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  17 This announcement is by the decree of the sentinels; this decision is by the pronouncement of the holy ones, so that those who are alive may understand that the Most High has authority over human kingdoms, and he bestows them on whomever he wishes. He establishes over them even the lowliest of human beings.’ 18 “This is the dream that I, King Nebuchadnezzar, saw. Now you, Belteshazzar, declare its interpretation, for none of the wise men in my kingdom are able to make known to me the interpretation. But you can do so, for a spirit of the holy gods is in you.”
2. 400–600 CE
  
  3 Enoch 28:4
  
  Pseudepigrapha, Apocalypses
  
  4 And not only that, but the Holy One, blessed be He, does nothing in his world without first consulting them, but after that he does it. As it is written (Dan. iv. 17): "The sentence is by the decree of the 'Irin and the demand by the word of the Qaddishin." 5 The 'Irin are two and the Qaddishin are two. And how are they standing before the Holy One, blessed be He? It is to be understood, that one 'Ir is standing on one side and the other 'Ir on the other side, and one Qaddish is standing on one side and the other on the other side.