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Kidneys and Livers

In the ancient Near East, including the Hebrew Bible and its derivative traditions, internal organs such as the kidneys and liver were often regarded as more than just specialized organs as understood in modern medicine; they were seen as the seats of emotion, intellect, and moral reasoning. These connected traditions frequently associate these organs with judgment, instruction, and moral testing, alongside intense emotions such as grief or joy. The core of this phenomenon is how pre-scientific cultures and literature attempted to understand the root of behavior that would later be attributed to the brain.

Timeline

  1. Dialogue Between a Man and his God / Psalm 26:2

    1. 1700 BCE

      Dialogue Between a Man and his God

      Ancient Near East, Babylonian

      A man weeps to his god like a friend, He constantly prays. His heart is aflame, his toil is grim, His kidneys are grieving from suffering. He has become weak and then bent: he is prostrated. His toil has become too heavy for him, he has drawn near to weep. He brays like the weaned foal of a donkey. He has got loud in the god’s presence, his chief. A bull is his speech, his voice two lamenters. His lips bear a lament to his lord. He recounts to his lord the toil he has gone through. The man explains the suffering he is enduring: “My lord, I have examined my kidneys ... In my heart. I do not know what sin I have committed. Have I committed an abomination against you?

    2. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 26:2

      Hebrew Bible

      1 By David. Vindicate me, O Lord, for I have integrity, and I trust in the Lord without wavering. 2 Examine me, O Lord, and test me. Examine my kidneys and my heart3. 3 For I am ever aware of your faithfulness, and your loyalty continually motivates me. 4 I do not associate with deceitful men, or consort with those who are dishonest.

  2. KTU 1.3 II:23 / Psalm 30:12

    1. 1350–1185 BCE

      KTU 1.3 II:23

      Ancient Near East, Ugaritic

      Then behold! Anat proceeded to her house, the goddess started for her palace; but she was not sated with her fighting in the vale, her battling between the two cities. She arranged chairs for the warriors, she did arrange tables for the soldiers, stools for the heroes. Anat fought hard and looked, she battled and surveyed the scene; her liver swelled with laughter, her heart was filled with joy, the liver of Anat with triumph, as she plunged her knees in the blood of the guards, her skirts in the gore of the warriors, until she was sated with fighting in the house, with battling between the tables. The blood of the guards was wiped from the house

    2. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 30:12

      Hebrew Bible

      9 “What profit is there in taking my life, in my descending into the Pit? Can the dust of the grave praise you? Can it declare your loyalty? 10 Hear, O Lord, and have mercy on me. O Lord, deliver me.” 11 Then you turned my lament into dancing; you removed my sackcloth and covered me with joy. 12 So now my liver24 will sing to you and not be silent; O Lord my God, I will always give thanks to you.

  3. KTU 1.3 II:25 / Proverbs 23:16

    1. 1350–1185 BCE

      KTU 1.3 II:25

      Ancient Near East, Ugaritic

      Then behold! Anat proceeded to her house, the goddess started for her palace; but she was not sated with her fighting in the vale, her battling between the two cities. She arranged chairs for the warriors, she did arrange tables for the soldiers, stools for the heroes. Anat fought hard and looked, she battled and surveyed the scene; her liver swelled with laughter, her heart was filled with joy, the liver of Anat with triumph, as she plunged her knees in the blood of the guards, her skirts in the gore of the warriors, until she was sated with fighting in the house, with battling between the tables. The blood of the guards was wiped from the house

    2. 600–201 BCE

      Proverbs 23:16

      Hebrew Bible

      15 My child, if your heart is wise, then my heart also will be glad; 16 my kidneys27 will rejoice when your lips speak what is right. 17 Do not let your heart envy sinners, but rather be zealous in fearing the Lord all the time. 18 For surely there is a future, and your hope will not be cut off.

  4. KTU 1.16 VI:25 / Psalm 16:7

    1. 1350–1185 BCE

      KTU 1.16 VI:25

      Ancient Near East, Ugaritic

      Yassib also sits in the palace, and his inward parts instruct him: "Go to your father, Yassib. Go [to] your fa[ther] and speak, repeat to Kir[ta the Noble]: Lis[ten] and incline [(your) ear. For . . . . . . . . . ] . . . . and . . . . . [ ] You have let your hand fall into mischief. You used to judge the cause of the widow, to adjudicate the case of the wretched. Since you have become a brother of the bed of sickness, a companion of the bed of suffering, descend from the kingship—I will be king; in your authority I will sit."—

    2. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 16:7

      Hebrew Bible

      5 The Lord is the portion of my possession and my cup9; you make my future secure. 6 It is as if I have been given fertile fields or received a beautiful tract of land. 7 I will praise the Lord who guides me; yes, during the night my kidneys instruct me15. 8 I set the Lord before me continually16; because he is at my right hand, I will not be shaken.

  5. KTU 1.18 I:17 / Lamentations 2:11

    1. 1350–1185 BCE

      KTU 1.18 I:17

      Ancient Near East, Ugaritic

      “Do not let the sons of your house, O El, do not let the daughters of your house rejoice, do not let the children of your palace rejoice! I shall surely seize them in my right hand; I shall smite them by the strength of my long arm! I shall smite you on your skull; I shall make your gray hair run with blood, the gray hair of your beard with gore! Then let Aqhat come to you, and let the son of Danel deliver you, and let him save you from the hand of Virgin Anat!” But the Wise One, El the perceptive, replied: “I know you, daughter, that you are pitiless, and that among goddesses there is no contempt like yours! Depart, daughter! Ruthless is your heart: You take what is in your liver, you take what is in your heart! Let him be trampled who hinders you!” Virgin Anat departed. Then indeed she set her face towards Aqhat the hero, over a thousand miles, ten thousand leagues, and Virgin Anat laughed.

    2. 500–401 BCE

      Lamentations 2:11

      Hebrew Bible

      10 י (Yod) The elders of Daughter Zion sit on the ground in silence. They have thrown dirt on their heads; they have dressed in sackcloth. Jerusalem’s young women stare down at the ground. 11 כ (Kaf) My eyes are worn out from weeping; my stomach is in knots. My liver59 is poured out on the ground due to the destruction of my helpless people; children and infants faint in the town squares. 12 ל (Lamed) Children say to their mothers, “Where are food and drink?” They faint like a wounded warrior in the city squares. They die slowly in their mothers’ arms.

  6. KTU 1.19 I:34 / Lamentations 2:11

    1. 1350–1185 BCE

      KTU 1.19 I:34

      Ancient Near East, Ugaritic

      On lifting up her eyes she saw that the fleece on the threshing-floor was dry, that the field was wilted, that the fruit of the orchard was shriveled. Over her father’s house some falcons hovered, a flock of hawks was watching. Pughat wept in her heart, she cried in her liver. She tore the garment of Danel the man of healing, the cloak of the hero, the devotee of Hrnm. Then Danel the man of healing cursed the clouds, which rain on the dreadful heat, the clouds which rain on the summer-fruit, the dew which settles on the grapes: “For seven years Baal shall fail, for eight, the Charioteer of the clouds!

    2. 500–401 BCE

      Lamentations 2:11

      Hebrew Bible

      10 י (Yod) The elders of Daughter Zion sit on the ground in silence. They have thrown dirt on their heads; they have dressed in sackcloth. Jerusalem’s young women stare down at the ground. 11 כ (Kaf) My eyes are worn out from weeping; my stomach is in knots. My liver59 is poured out on the ground due to the destruction of my helpless people; children and infants faint in the town squares. 12 ל (Lamed) Children say to their mothers, “Where are food and drink?” They faint like a wounded warrior in the city squares. They die slowly in their mothers’ arms.

  7. Psalm 7:9 / Revelation 2:23

    1. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 7:9

      Hebrew Bible

      8 The Lord judges the nations. Vindicate me, Lord, because I am innocent, because I am blameless, O Exalted One. 9 May the evil deeds of the wicked come to an end. But make the innocent secure, O righteous God, you who examine hearts and kidneys32. 10 The Exalted God is my shield, the one who delivers the morally upright.

    2. 92–96 CE

      Revelation 2:23

      New Testament

      22 Look! I am throwing her onto a bed of violent illness, and those who commit adultery with her into terrible suffering, unless they repent of her deeds. 23 Furthermore, I will strike her followers with a deadly disease, and then all the churches will know that I am the one who searches kidneys* and hearts. I will repay each one of you what your deeds deserve. 24 But to the rest of you in Thyatira, all who do not hold to this teaching (who have not learned the so-called “deep secrets of Satan”), to you I say: I do not put any additional burden on you.

  8. Psalm 7:9 / Wisdom of Solomon 1:6

    1. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 7:9

      Hebrew Bible

      8 The Lord judges the nations. Vindicate me, Lord, because I am innocent, because I am blameless, O Exalted One. 9 May the evil deeds of the wicked come to an end. But make the innocent secure, O righteous God, you who examine hearts and kidneys32. 10 The Exalted God is my shield, the one who delivers the morally upright.

    2. 50 BCE – 50 CE

      Wisdom of Solomon 1:6

      Deuterocanon

      5 For a holy spirit of discipline will flee deceit, and will depart from thoughts that are without understanding, and will be ashamed when unrighteousness has come in. 6 For wisdom is a spirit who loves man, and she will not hold a blasphemer guiltless for his lips, because God is witness of his inmost self, and is a true overseer of his heart, and a hearer of his tongue. 7 Because the spirit of the Lord has filled the world, and that which holds all things together knows what is said.

  9. Psalm 16:7 / Revelation 2:23

    1. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 16:7

      Hebrew Bible

      5 The Lord is the portion of my possession and my cup9; you make my future secure. 6 It is as if I have been given fertile fields or received a beautiful tract of land. 7 I will praise the Lord who guides me; yes, during the night my kidneys instruct me15. 8 I set the Lord before me continually16; because he is at my right hand, I will not be shaken. 9 So my heart rejoices and I am happy; my life is safe.

    2. 92–96 CE

      Revelation 2:23

      New Testament

      21 I have given her time to repent, but she is not willing to repent of her sexual immorality. 22 Look! I am throwing her onto a bed of violent illness, and those who commit adultery with her into terrible suffering, unless they repent of her deeds. 23 Furthermore, I will strike her followers with a deadly disease, and then all the churches will know that I am the one who searches kidneys* and hearts. I will repay each one of you what your deeds deserve. 24 But to the rest of you in Thyatira, all who do not hold to this teaching (who have not learned the so-called “deep secrets of Satan”), to you I say: I do not put any additional burden on you. 25 However, hold on to what you have until I come.

  10. Psalm 16:7 / Berakhot 61a

    1. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 16:7

      Hebrew Bible

      5 The Lord is the portion of my possession and my cup9; you make my future secure. 6 It is as if I have been given fertile fields or received a beautiful tract of land. 7 I will praise the Lord who guides me; yes, during the night my kidneys instruct me15. 8 I set the Lord before me continually16; because he is at my right hand, I will not be shaken. 9 So my heart rejoices and I am happy; my life is safe.

    2. 450–550 CE

      Berakhot 61a

      Rabbinic

      Rav said: The evil inclination is like a fly and it sits between the two entrances of the heart, as it is stated: “Dead flies make the ointment of the perfumer fetid and putrid” (Ecclesiastes 10:1). And Shmuel said: The evil inclination is like a type of wheat, as it is stated: “Transgression [ḥatat] couches at the door” (Genesis 4:7); ḥatat is interpreted homiletically as related to ḥitta, wheat. The Sages taught in a baraita: A person has two kidneys; one advises him to do good and one advises him to do evil. And it stands to reason that the one advising him to do good is to his right and the one that advises him to do evil is to his left, as it is written: “A wise man’s understanding is at his right hand, but a fool’s understanding is at his left” (Ecclesiastes 10:2). Tangential to the subject of kidneys, the Gemara cites that which the Sages taught in a baraita with regard to the roles of various organs: The kidneys advise, the heart understands, the tongue shapes the sounds that emerges from the mouth, the mouth completes the shaping of the voice, the esophagus takes in and lets out all kinds of food, the trachea produces the voice,

  11. Psalm 16:7 / Genesis Rabbah 61:1

    1. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 16:7

      Hebrew Bible

      5 The Lord is the portion of my possession and my cup9; you make my future secure. 6 It is as if I have been given fertile fields or received a beautiful tract of land. 7 I will praise the Lord who guides me; yes, during the night my kidneys instruct me15. 8 I set the Lord before me continually16; because he is at my right hand, I will not be shaken.

    2. 500 CE

      Genesis Rabbah 61:1

      Rabbinic

      (Genesis 20:15). “But whose desire is the Torah of the Lord” (Psalms 1:2) – “For I love him, so that he will command [his children and his household after him that they keep the way of the Lord]…” (Genesis 18:19). “And he meditates on His Torah” (Psalms 1:2) – Rabbi Shimon said: He [Abraham] had no father to teach him, and he did not have a teacher. From where, then, did he learn Torah? The answer is that the Holy One blessed be He set his two kidneys [kilyotav] as two teachers of a sort, and they would flow forth and teach him Torah and wisdom. That is what is written: “I bless the Lord who counsels me, even on nights when my thoughts [khilyotai] are anguished” (Psalms 16:7). “He will be like a tree planted” (Psalms 1:3) – the Holy One blessed be He planted him in the Land of Israel. “Which brings forth its fruit in season” (Psalms 1:3) – this refers to Ishmael. “And whose leaf does not wither” (Psalms 1:3) – this refers to Isaac. “And

  12. Psalm 26:2 / Revelation 2:23

    1. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 26:2

      Hebrew Bible

      1 By David. Vindicate me, O Lord, for I have integrity, and I trust in the Lord without wavering. 2 Examine me, O Lord, and test me. Examine my kidneys and my heart3. 3 For I am ever aware of your faithfulness, and your loyalty continually motivates me. 4 I do not associate with deceitful men, or consort with those who are dishonest.

    2. 92–96 CE

      Revelation 2:23

      New Testament

      21 I have given her time to repent, but she is not willing to repent of her sexual immorality. 22 Look! I am throwing her onto a bed of violent illness, and those who commit adultery with her into terrible suffering, unless they repent of her deeds. 23 Furthermore, I will strike her followers with a deadly disease, and then all the churches will know that I am the one who searches kidneys* and hearts. I will repay each one of you what your deeds deserve. 24 But to the rest of you in Thyatira, all who do not hold to this teaching (who have not learned the so-called “deep secrets of Satan”), to you I say: I do not put any additional burden on you. 25 However, hold on to what you have until I come.

  13. Psalm 30:12 / Psalm 108:1

    1. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 30:12

      Hebrew Bible

      10 Hear, O Lord, and have mercy on me. O Lord, deliver me.” 11 Then you turned my lament into dancing; you removed my sackcloth and covered me with joy. 12 So now my liver24 will sing to you and not be silent; O Lord my God, I will always give thanks to you.

    2. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 108:1

      Hebrew Bible

      1 A song, a psalm of David. I am determined, O God. I will sing and praise you with my liver3. 2 Awake, O stringed instrument and harp. I will wake up at dawn. 3 I will give you thanks before the nations, O Lord. I will sing praises to you before foreigners.

  14. Psalm 57:8 / Lamentations 2:11

    1. 600–201 BCE

      Psalm 57:8

      Hebrew Bible

      7 I am determined, O God. I am determined. I will sing and praise you. 8 Awake, my liver21! Awake, O stringed instrument and harp! I will wake up at dawn. 9 I will give you thanks before the nations, O Lord. I will sing praises to you before foreigners.

    2. 500–401 BCE

      Lamentations 2:11

      Hebrew Bible

      10 י (Yod) The elders of Daughter Zion sit on the ground in silence. They have thrown dirt on their heads; they have dressed in sackcloth. Jerusalem’s young women stare down at the ground. 11 כ (Kaf) My eyes are worn out from weeping; my stomach is in knots. My liver59 is poured out on the ground due to the destruction of my helpless people; children and infants faint in the town squares. 12 ל (Lamed) Children say to their mothers, “Where are food and drink?” They faint like a wounded warrior in the city squares. They die slowly in their mothers’ arms.

  15. Proverbs 23:16 / Jeremiah 12:2

    1. 600–201 BCE

      Proverbs 23:16

      Hebrew Bible

      15 My child, if your heart is wise, then my heart also will be glad; 16 my kidneys27 will rejoice when your lips speak what is right. 17 Do not let your heart envy sinners, but rather be zealous in fearing the Lord all the time. 18 For surely there is a future, and your hope will not be cut off.

    2. 500–401 BCE

      Jeremiah 12:2

      Hebrew Bible

      1 Lord, you have always been fair whenever I have complained to you. However, I would like to speak with you about the disposition of justice. Why are wicked people successful? Why do all dishonest people have such easy lives? 2 You plant them like trees, and they put down their roots. They grow prosperous and are very fruitful. You are near in their mouths, but far from their kidneys6. 3 But you, Lord, know all about me. You watch me and test my devotion to you. Drag these wicked men away like sheep to be slaughtered! Appoint a time when they will be killed!

  16. Proverbs 23:16 / 1 Maccabees 2:24

    1. 600–201 BCE

      Proverbs 23:16

      Hebrew Bible

      15 My child, if your heart is wise, then my heart also will be glad; 16 my kidneys27 will rejoice when your lips speak what is right. 17 Do not let your heart envy sinners, but rather be zealous in fearing the Lord all the time. 18 For surely there is a future, and your hope will not be cut off.

    2. 134–63 BCE

      1 Maccabees 2:24

      Deuterocanon

      23 When he had finished speaking these words, a Jew came in the sight of all to sacrifice on the altar which was at Modin, according to the king’s commandment. 24 Mattathias saw it, so his zeal was kindled, and his guts trembled, and he vented his wrath according to judgment, and ran and killed him upon the altar. 25 He killed the king’s officer, who compelled men to sacrifice, at the same time, and pulled down the altar.

  17. Jeremiah 11:20 / Revelation 2:23

    1. 500–401 BCE

      Jeremiah 11:20

      Hebrew Bible

      19 Before this I had been like a docile lamb ready to be led to the slaughter. I did not know they were making plans to kill me. I did not know they were saying, “Let’s destroy the tree along with its fruit! Let’s remove Jeremiah from the world of the living so people will not even be reminded of him anymore.” 20 So I said, “O Lord of Heaven’s Armies, you are a just judge! You examine people’s hearts and kidneys57. I want to see you pay them back for what they have done because I trust you to vindicate my cause.” 21 Then the Lord told me about some men from Anathoth who were threatening to kill me. They had threatened, “Stop prophesying in the name of the Lord or we will kill you!”

    2. 92–96 CE

      Revelation 2:23

      New Testament

      22 Look! I am throwing her onto a bed of violent illness, and those who commit adultery with her into terrible suffering, unless they repent of her deeds. 23 Furthermore, I will strike her followers with a deadly disease, and then all the churches will know that I am the one who searches kidneys* and hearts. I will repay each one of you what your deeds deserve. 24 But to the rest of you in Thyatira, all who do not hold to this teaching (who have not learned the so-called “deep secrets of Satan”), to you I say: I do not put any additional burden on you.

  18. Jeremiah 17:10 / Revelation 2:23

    1. 500–401 BCE

      Jeremiah 17:10

      Hebrew Bible

      8 They will be like a tree planted near a stream whose roots spread out toward the water. It has nothing to fear when the heat comes. Its leaves are always green. It has no need to be concerned in a year of drought. It does not stop bearing fruit. 9 The human mind is more deceitful than anything else. It is incurably bad. Who can understand it? 10 I, the Lord, probe into people’s kidneys10. I examine people’s hearts. I deal with each person according to how he has behaved. I give them what they deserve based on what they have done. 11 The person who gathers wealth by unjust means is like the partridge that broods over eggs but does not hatch them. Before his life is half over, he will lose his ill-gotten gains. At the end of his life, it will be clear he was a fool.” 12 Then I said, “Lord, from the very beginning you have been seated on your glorious throne on high. You are the place where we can find refuge.

    2. 92–96 CE

      Revelation 2:23

      New Testament

      21 I have given her time to repent, but she is not willing to repent of her sexual immorality. 22 Look! I am throwing her onto a bed of violent illness, and those who commit adultery with her into terrible suffering, unless they repent of her deeds. 23 Furthermore, I will strike her followers with a deadly disease, and then all the churches will know that I am the one who searches kidneys* and hearts. I will repay each one of you what your deeds deserve. 24 But to the rest of you in Thyatira, all who do not hold to this teaching (who have not learned the so-called “deep secrets of Satan”), to you I say: I do not put any additional burden on you. 25 However, hold on to what you have until I come.

  19. 2 Baruch 48:39 / Revelation 2:23

    1. 70–135 CE

      2 Baruch 48:39

      Pseudepigrapha, Apocalypses

      38 And it shall come to pass at the same time, That a change of times shall plainly appear to every man, Because in all those times they polluted themselves And they practiced oppression, And walked every man in his own works, And did not remember the law of the Mighty One. 39 Therefore a fire shall consume their thoughts, And in flame shall the meditations of their kidneys be tested; For the Judge shall come and will not delay. 40 Because each of the inhabitants of the earth knew when he was transgressing. But My Law they did not know by reason of their pride. 41 But many shall then surely weep, Yes, over the living more than over the dead. 42 And I answered and said: ‘O Adam, what have you done to all those who are born from you? And what will be said to the first Eve who listened to the serpent?

    2. 92–96 CE

      Revelation 2:23

      New Testament

      22 Look! I am throwing her onto a bed of violent illness, and those who commit adultery with her into terrible suffering, unless they repent of her deeds. 23 Furthermore, I will strike her followers with a deadly disease, and then all the churches will know that I am the one who searches kidneys* and hearts. I will repay each one of you what your deeds deserve. 24 But to the rest of you in Thyatira, all who do not hold to this teaching (who have not learned the so-called “deep secrets of Satan”), to you I say: I do not put any additional burden on you.

  20. Revelation 2:23 / Berakhot 61a

    1. 92–96 CE

      Revelation 2:23

      New Testament

      21 I have given her time to repent, but she is not willing to repent of her sexual immorality. 22 Look! I am throwing her onto a bed of violent illness, and those who commit adultery with her into terrible suffering, unless they repent of her deeds. 23 Furthermore, I will strike her followers with a deadly disease, and then all the churches will know that I am the one who searches kidneys* and hearts. I will repay each one of you what your deeds deserve. 24 But to the rest of you in Thyatira, all who do not hold to this teaching (who have not learned the so-called “deep secrets of Satan”), to you I say: I do not put any additional burden on you. 25 However, hold on to what you have until I come.

    2. 450–550 CE

      Berakhot 61a

      Rabbinic

      The Sages taught in a baraita: A person has two kidneys; one advises him to do good and one advises him to do evil. And it stands to reason that the one advising him to do good is to his right and the one that advises him to do evil is to his left, as it is written: “A wise man’s understanding is at his right hand, but a fool’s understanding is at his left” (Ecclesiastes 10:2). Tangential to the subject of kidneys, the Gemara cites that which the Sages taught in a baraita with regard to the roles of various organs: The kidneys advise, the heart understands, the tongue shapes the sounds that emerges from the mouth, the mouth completes the shaping of the voice, the esophagus takes in and lets out all kinds of food, the trachea produces the voice,

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