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Kidneys and Livers

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In the ancient Near East, including the Hebrew Bible and its derivative traditions, internal organs such as the kidneys and liver were often regarded as more than just specialized organs as understood in modern medicine; they were seen as the seats of emotion, intellect, and moral reasoning. These connected traditions frequently associate these organs with judgment, instruction, and moral testing, alongside intense emotions such as grief or joy. The core of this phenomenon is how pre-scientific cultures and literature attempted to understand the root of behavior that would later be attributed to the brain.

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