About This Tag
Chukkim are the commandments of the Torah that must be obeyed even if their purpose cannot be explained. This term was used by Rabbinic tradition to distinguish these from the mishpatim, the rules that are reasonable and explainable. Tradition assigned to the chukkim the commandments concerning the red heifer, the scapegoat, mixed fibers, and dietary laws. Other traditions, including the Greek Septuagint translation, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Aramaic Targums, and early Christian traditions similarly struggled with these obscure commands in the Torah and tried to find some reason or rationale why they are in it. Historically, the underlying reasons for these commands were lost over time, leaving interpreters to make their own meaning out of them.
Note: Dates shown in this timeline are approximate and based on scholarly estimates.
Back to TagCode of Hammurabi 1:142 / Numbers 5:24
1750 B.C.E.
Code of Hammurabi 1:142
Ancient Near East
131 If a man accuses his own wife but she has not been caught lying with another man, she shall take an oath and may return to her house. 132 If the finger is pointed at a man's wife because of another man, but she has not been caught lying with him, she shall leap into the river for her husband's sake. 133 If a man is taken prisoner in war and there is food in his house, but his wife leaves the house and household and goes to another house: because this wife did not keep her household and went to another house, she shall be judicially condemned and thrown into the water.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Numbers 5:24
Hebrew Bible
16 “‘Then the priest will bring her near and have her stand before the Lord. 17 The priest will then take holy water in a pottery jar, and take some of the dust that is on the floor of the tabernacle, and put it into the water. 18 Then the priest will have the woman stand before the Lord, and he will uncover the woman’s head and put the grain offering for remembering in her hands, which is the grain offering of suspicion. The priest will hold in his hand the bitter water that brings a curse. 19 Then the priest will put the woman under oath and say to her, “If no other man has gone to bed with you, and if you have not gone astray and become defiled while under your husband’s authority, may you be free from this bitter water that brings a curse. 20 But if you have gone astray while under your husband’s authority, and if you have defiled yourself and some man other than your husband has had sexual relations with you—” 21 (then the priest will put the woman under the oath of the curse and will say to her) “the Lord make you an attested curse among your people if the Lord makes your thigh fall away and your abdomen swell, 22 and this water that causes the curse will go into your stomach and make your abdomen swell and your thigh rot.” Then the woman must say, “Amen, amen.” 23 “‘Then the priest will write these curses on a scroll and then scrape them off into the bitter water. 24 He will make the woman drink the bitter water that brings a curse, and the water that brings a curse will enter her to produce bitterness.
1200 B.C.E.
Surpu II
Ancient Near East
Be it released, great gods, god and goddess, lords of absolution. Nenni, son of Nenni, whose god is Nenni, whose goddess is Nenni, who is …, sick, in danger of death, distraught, troubled, who has eaten what is taboo to his god, who has eaten what is taboo to his goddess, who said no for yes, who said yes for no, who pointed his finger accusingly behind the back of his fellow-man, who calumniated, spoke what is not allowed to speak
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 11:2
Hebrew Bible
1 The Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron, saying to them, 2 “Tell the Israelites: ‘This is the kind of creature you may eat from among all the animals that are on the land. 3 You may eat any among the animals that has a divided hoof (the hooves are completely split in two) and that also chews the cud. 4 However, you must not eat these from among those that chew the cud and have divided hooves: The camel is unclean to you because it chews the cud even though its hoof is not divided. 5 The rock badger is unclean to you because it chews the cud even though its hoof is not divided.
1200 B.C.E.
Emar Saharsubbu
Ancient Near East
If a person has saharsubbu and there is white color on his body, you should take asagu-plant, salt, barley, flour, and anoint him and he will get well ... Likewise if the saharsubbu is yellow and red ... ... The leprosy is yellow and red, it is the hand of Sin. To remove it, you should anoint him with human semen for seven days and he will recover ... ... After he recovers, this patient stands before Shamash. You shall burn one partridge and a crab before Shamash, and with another partridge you shall wipe his body and he will let it go.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 14:3
Hebrew Bible
1 The Lord spoke to Moses: 2 “This is the law of the diseased person on the day of his purification, when he is brought to the priest. 3 The priest is to go outside the camp and examine the infection. If the infection of the diseased person has been healed, 4 then the priest will command that two live clean birds, a piece of cedar wood, a scrap of crimson fabric, and some twigs of hyssop be taken up for the one being cleansed. 5 The priest will then command that one bird be slaughtered into a clay vessel over fresh water. 6 Then he is to take the live bird along with the piece of cedar wood, the scrap of crimson fabric, and the twigs of hyssop, and he is to dip them and the live bird in the blood of the bird slaughtered over the fresh water, 7 and sprinkle it seven times on the one being cleansed from the disease, pronounce him clean, and send the live bird away over the open countryside.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Exodus 23:19
Hebrew Bible
18 “You must not offer the blood of my sacrifice with bread containing yeast; the fat of my festal sacrifice must not remain until morning. 19 The first of the firstfruits of your soil you must bring to the house of the Lord your God. “You must not cook a young goat in its mother’s milk. 20 “I am going to send a messenger before you to protect you as you journey and to bring you into the place that I have prepared.
100-200 C.E.
Onkelos Exodus 23:19
Targum
18 Do not offer with unleavened bread the blood of My pascha, neither shall the fat of the sacrifice of the feast remain without on the altar until morning. 19 The beginning of the first fruits of your land you will bring into the sanctuary of the Lord God. Do not eat meat with milk. 20 Behold, I send My Angel before you, to protect you in the way, and to bring you into the place which I have prepared.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 11:13
Hebrew Bible
12 Any creature in the water that does not have both fins and scales is detestable to you. 13 “‘These you are to detest from among the birds—they must not be eaten, because they are detestable: the griffon vulture, the bearded vulture, the black vulture, 14 the kite, the buzzard of any kind,
100-200 C.E.
Onkelos Leviticus 11:13
Targum
12 whatsoever hath not (both) fins and scales in the waters is to be an abomination to you. 13 And these shall you hold in abomination among the birds; you shall not eat them, they are an abomination: the eagle, and the sea eagle, and the osprey, 14 and the kite, and the vulture, after his kind;
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 11:17
Hebrew Bible
13 “‘These you are to detest from among the birds—they must not be eaten, because they are detestable: the griffon vulture, the bearded vulture, the black vulture, 14 the kite, the buzzard of any kind, 15 every kind of crow, 16 the eagle owl, the short-eared owl, the long-eared owl, the hawk of any kind, 17 the little owl, the cormorant, the screech owl, 18 the white owl, the scops owl, the osprey, 19 the stork, the heron of any kind, the hoopoe, and the bat.
3rd Century B.C.E.
LXX Leviticus 11:17
Septuagint
13 ‘And these are the animals that you will consider an abomination from the birds, and they will not be eaten; they are an abomination: the eagle and the griffin and the sea-eagle 14 and the vulture and the kite and the birds resembling it 15 and the sparrow and the owl and the seagull and the birds resembling it 16 and the hawk and the birds resembling it 17 and the horned owl and cormorant and the ibis 18 and the water-hen and pelican and the swan 19 and the little owl and the heron and plover and the birds resembling it; and the hoopoe and the bat
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 11:19
Hebrew Bible
17 the little owl, the cormorant, the screech owl, 18 the white owl, the scops owl, the osprey, 19 the stork, the heron of any kind, the hoopoe, and the bat. 20 “‘Every winged swarming thing that walks on all fours is detestable to you. 21 However, this you may eat from all the winged swarming things that walk on all fours, which have jointed legs to hop with on the land.
3rd Century B.C.E.
LXX Leviticus 11:19
Septuagint
17 and the horned owl and cormorant and the ibis 18 and the water-hen and pelican and the swan 19 and the little owl and the heron and plover and the birds resembling it; and the hoopoe and the bat 20 ‘And all of the winged creatures that creep, that go on four feet, they are an abomination to you 21 But you may eat of these: of the creeping winged creatures that move on four feet, which have legs up from its feet to hop by along the ground
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 11:29
Hebrew Bible
29 “‘Now this is what is unclean to you among the swarming things that swarm on the land: the rat, the mouse, the large lizard of any kind, 30 the Mediterranean gecko, the spotted lizard, the wall gecko, the skink, and the chameleon. 31 These are the ones that are unclean to you among all the swarming things. Anyone who touches these creatures when they die will be unclean until evening.
200-150 B.C.E.
Letter of Aristeas 1:144
Pseudepigrapha
rules of purity, affecting alike what we eat, or drink, or touch, or hear, or see. For though, speaking generally, all things are alike in their natural constitution, since they are all governed by one and the same power, yet there is a deep reason in each individual case why we abstain from the use of certain things and enjoy the common use of others. For the sake of illustration I will run over one or two points and explain them to you. For you must not fall into the degrading idea that it was out of regard to mice and weasels and other such things that Moses drew up his laws with such exceeding care. All these ordinances were made for the sake of righteousness to aid the quest for virtue and the perfecting of character. For all the birds that we use are tame and distinguished by their cleanliness, feeding on various kinds of grain and pulse, such as for instance pigeons, turtle-doves,
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 11:43
Hebrew Bible
42 You must not eat anything that crawls on its belly or anything that walks on all fours or on any number of legs of all the swarming things that swarm on the land, because they are detestable. 43 Do not make yourselves detestable by any of the swarming things. You must not defile yourselves by them and become unclean by them, 44 for I am the Lord your God, and you are to sanctify yourselves and be holy because I am holy. You must not defile yourselves by any of the swarming things that creep on the ground,
100-200 C.E.
Onkelos Leviticus 11:43
Targum
42 Whatsoever goeth upon its belly, and whatever goeth upon four, anything that hath many feet, and every reptile that creepeth upon the ground, you shall not eat, for they are an abomination. 43 You shall not make yourselves abominable with your animals by any reptile that creepeth, nor make yourselves unclean, nor be polluted by them, lest by them you remain unclean. 44 For I am the Lord your God; sanctify yourselves and be holy, for I am Holy; that you may not contaminate your souls with any reptile which creepeth upon the ground;
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 12:2
Hebrew Bible
1 The Lord spoke to Moses: 2 “Tell the Israelites, ‘When a woman produces offspring and bears a male child, she will be unclean seven days, as she is unclean during the days of her menstruation. 3 On the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin must be circumcised.
100-200 C.E.
Onkelos Leviticus 12:2
Targum
1 And the Lord spake with Mosheh, saying: 2 Speak with the children of Israel, saying: A woman, when she hath conceived and borne a male child, shall be unclean seven days; according to the days for the removal of her uncleanness, she shall be unclean. 3 And on the eighth day he shall be circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin;
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 14:34
Hebrew Bible
33 The Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron: 34 “When you enter the land of Canaan which I am about to give to you for a possession, and I put a diseased infection in a house in the land you are to possess, 35 then whoever owns the house must come and declare to the priest, ‘Something like an infection is visible to me in the house.’
100-200 C.E.
Onkelos Leviticus 14:34
Targum
33 And the Lord spake with Mosheh and to Aharon, saying: 34 When you have entered the land of Kenaan, which I will give unto you for a possession; and I have put the plague of leprosy upon a house in the land of your possession; 35 and he who owns the house shall come and show to the priest, saying, There is a plague, as it appeareth to me, in the house:
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 15:33
Hebrew Bible
31 “‘Thus you are to set the Israelites apart from their impurity so that they do not die in their impurity by defiling my tabernacle which is in their midst. 32 This is the law for the one with a discharge: for the one who has a seminal emission and becomes unclean by it, 33 for the one who is sick in her menstruation, for the one with a discharge, whether male or female, and for a man who goes to bed with an unclean woman.’”
100-200 C.E.
Onkelos Leviticus 15:33
Targum
31 And (thus) shall you separate the children of Israel from their uncleanness, that they die not, by defiling My Tabernacle which is among them. 32 This is the law for him who hath an issue, or whose seed goeth from him, and who is defiled therewith; 33 and of her who hath an issue of separation; and of him who hath a flowing issue, of the male and of the female, and of him who lieth with her who is unclean.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 16:8
Hebrew Bible
6 Then Aaron is to present the sin-offering bull which is for himself and is to make atonement on behalf of himself and his household. 7 Next he must take the two goats and stand them before the Lord at the entrance of the Meeting Tent, 8 and Aaron is to cast lots over the two goats, one lot for the Lord and one lot for Azazel. 9 Aaron must then present the goat which has been designated by lot for the Lord, and he is to make it a sin offering, 10 but the goat which has been designated by lot for Azazel is to be stood alive before the Lord to make atonement on it by sending it away into the desert to Azazel.
130-120 B.C.E.
Samaritan Leviticus 16:8
Samaritan
6 And Aaron shall offer his bullock of the sin offering, which is for himself, and make an atonement for himself, and for his house. 7 And he shall take the two goats, and present them before the LORD at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation. 8 And Aaron shall cast lots upon the two goats; one lot for the LORD, and the other lot for Ezaazel. 9 And Aaron shall bring the goat upon which the LORD's lot fell, and offer him for a sin offering. 10 But the goat, on which the lot for Ezaazel fell, shall be presented alive before the LORD, to make an atonement with him, and to let him go send it into the desert to Ezaazel.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 16:8
Hebrew Bible
7 Next he must take the two goats and stand them before the Lord at the entrance of the Meeting Tent, 8 and Aaron is to cast lots over the two goats, one lot for the Lord and one lot for Azazel. 9 Aaron must then present the goat which has been designated by lot for the Lord, and he is to make it a sin offering,
100-200 C.E.
Onkelos Leviticus 16:8
Targum
7 And he shall take the two goats, and make them to stand before the Lord, at the door of the tabernacle of ordinance. 8 And Aharon shall put lots upon the two goats; one lot for the Name of the Lord, and one lot for Azazel. 9 And Aharon shall offer the goat whose lot came up for the Name of the Lord, and make him a sin offering;
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 16:8
Hebrew Bible
7 Next he must take the two goats and stand them before the Lord at the entrance of the Meeting Tent, 8 and Aaron is to cast lots over the two goats, one lot for the Lord and one lot for Azazel. 9 Aaron must then present the goat which has been designated by lot for the Lord, and he is to make it a sin offering,
3rd Century B.C.E.
LXX Leviticus 16:8
Septuagint
7 And he will take the two he-goats and will make them stand in the presence of the Lord at the entrance of the tent of testimony 8 And Aaron will place a lot on each of the two he-goats: one for the Lord and one lot for the one who carries away evil 9 And Aaron will bring the he-goat on which the lot for the Lord came on it, and he shall offer it for a sin offering
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 16:8
Hebrew Bible
5 He must also take two male goats from the congregation of the Israelites for a sin offering and one ram for a burnt offering. 6 Then Aaron is to present the sin-offering bull which is for himself and is to make atonement on behalf of himself and his household. 7 Next he must take the two goats and stand them before the Lord at the entrance of the Meeting Tent, 8 and Aaron is to cast lots over the two goats, one lot for the Lord and one lot for Azazel. 9 Aaron must then present the goat which has been designated by lot for the Lord, and he is to make it a sin offering, 10 but the goat which has been designated by lot for Azazel is to be stood alive before the Lord to make atonement on it by sending it away into the desert to Azazel.
80-120 C.E.
Barnabas 7:8
Early Christian
6 Pay attention to the commands He gave: ‘Take two goats, fair and alike, and offer them, and let the priest take the one for a whole burnt offering for sins.’ 7 But what must be done with the other? ‘Cursed,’ He says, ‘is the one.’ Notice how Jesus is revealed in this. 8 ‘And all of you must spit on it and poke it, and place scarlet wool around its head, and thus cast it into the wilderness. And when this is done, the one who takes the goat into the wilderness leads it, and removes the wool, and places it upon the branch called Rachia, from which we eat the shoots if we find them in the countryside. Of this briar alone the fruit is sweet.’
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 16:10
Hebrew Bible
8 and Aaron is to cast lots over the two goats, one lot for the Lord and one lot for Azazel. 9 Aaron must then present the goat which has been designated by lot for the Lord, and he is to make it a sin offering, 10 but the goat which has been designated by lot for Azazel is to be stood alive before the Lord to make atonement on it by sending it away into the desert to Azazel.
300-1200 C.E.
And Aharon shall put upon the goats equal lots; one lot for the Name of the Lord, and one lot for Azazel: and he shall throw them into the vase, and draw them out, and put them upon the goats. And Aharon shall bring the goat upon which came up the lot for the Name of the Lord, and make him a sin offering. And the goat on which came up the lot for Azazel he shall make to stand alive before the Lord, to expiate for the sins of the people of the house of Israel, by sending him to die in a place rough and hard in the rocky desert which is Beth‑hadurey.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 16:10
Hebrew Bible
8 and Aaron is to cast lots over the two goats, one lot for the Lord and one lot for Azazel. 9 Aaron must then present the goat which has been designated by lot for the Lord, and he is to make it a sin offering, 10 but the goat which has been designated by lot for Azazel is to be stood alive before the Lord to make atonement on it by sending it away into the desert to Azazel. 11 “Aaron is to present the sin-offering bull which is for himself, and he is to make atonement on behalf of himself and his household. He is to slaughter the sin-offering bull which is for himself, 12 and take a censer full of coals of fire from the altar before the Lord and a full double handful of finely ground fragrant incense, and bring them inside the curtain.
200-50 B.C.E.
1 Enoch 54:5
Pseudepigrapha
3 There, my eyes saw how they made these instruments, iron chains of immense weight. 4 I asked the angel of peace who was with me, 'For whom are these chains being prepared?' 5 He said to me, 'These are being prepared for the hosts of Azâzêl, so they may take them and throw them into the abyss of complete condemnation, and they shall cover their jaws with rough stones as the Lord of Spirits commanded.' 6 Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Phanuel will seize them on that great day, and throw them into the burning furnace, that the Lord of Spirits may avenge their wickedness in submitting to Satan and leading astray those who dwell on the earth.' 7 'In those days, punishment will come from the Lord of Spirits, and he will open all the chambers of waters above the heavens, and the fountains beneath the earth.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 16:10
Hebrew Bible
8 and Aaron is to cast lots over the two goats, one lot for the Lord and one lot for Azazel. 9 Aaron must then present the goat which has been designated by lot for the Lord, and he is to make it a sin offering, 10 but the goat which has been designated by lot for Azazel is to be stood alive before the Lord to make atonement on it by sending it away into the desert to Azazel. 11 “Aaron is to present the sin-offering bull which is for himself, and he is to make atonement on behalf of himself and his household. He is to slaughter the sin-offering bull which is for himself, 12 and take a censer full of coals of fire from the altar before the Lord and a full double handful of finely ground fragrant incense, and bring them inside the curtain.
200-50 B.C.E.
1 Enoch 10:4
Pseudepigrapha
2 'Go to Noah and tell him in my name to hide himself and reveal to him that the end is near: the entire earth will be destroyed, a deluge is about to cover the whole earth and will wipe out everything on it. 3 And now instruct him so that he may escape and his descendants may be preserved for all future generations.' 4 And the Lord also said to Raphael: 'Bind Azâzal hand and foot, and cast him into the darkness: make a hole in the desert in Dûdâel, and throw him in. 5 Place upon him rough and jagged rocks, cover him with darkness, and let him remain there forever, and cover his face so he may not see light.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 16:12
Hebrew Bible
11 “Aaron is to present the sin-offering bull which is for himself, and he is to make atonement on behalf of himself and his household. He is to slaughter the sin-offering bull which is for himself, 12 and take a censer full of coals of fire from the altar before the Lord and a full double handful of finely ground fragrant incense, and bring them inside the curtain. 13 He must then put the incense on the fire before the Lord, and the cloud of incense will cover the atonement lid which is above the ark of the testimony, so that he will not die.
100-200 C.E.
Onkelos Leviticus 16:12
Targum
11 And Aharon shall offer the bullock for his own sin, and make atonement for himself and for the men of his house; and he shall kill the bullock for the sin offering which is for himself. 12 And he shall take a censer full of coals of fire from off the altar before the Lord, and his handful of sweet incense beaten small, and carry (them) within the veil. 13 And he shall put the sweet incense upon the fire before the Lord, and the cloud of incense will envelope the mercy-seat which is over the testimony, that he may not die.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 16:22
Hebrew Bible
20 “When Aaron has finished purifying the Holy Place, the Meeting Tent, and the altar, he is to present the live goat. 21 Aaron is to lay his two hands on the head of the live goat and confess over it all the iniquities of the Israelites and all their transgressions in regard to all their sins, and thus he is to put them on the head of the goat and send it away into the desert by the hand of a man standing ready. 22 The goat is to bear on itself all their iniquities into an inaccessible land, so he is to send the goat away into the desert.
300-1200 C.E.
And Aharon shall lay his hands (upon him) in this order, his right hand upon his left, upon the head of the living goat, and confess over him all the iniquities of the children of Israel, and all their rebellions, and all their sins, and shall put them, with an oath uttered and expressed with the Great and glorious Name, upon the head of the goat, and send (him) away by the hand of a man prepared from the year foregoing, to take him into a rocky desert which is Beth‑hadurey; and the goat shall bear upon him all their sins into a desert place; and the man shall send forth the goat to a rocky desert; and the goat will go up on the mountains of Beth‑hadurey, and a tempestuous wind from the presence of the Lord will carry him away, and he will die.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 16:31
Hebrew Bible
30 for on this day atonement is to be made for you to cleanse you from all your sins; you must be clean before the Lord. 31 It is to be a Sabbath of complete rest for you, and you must humble yourselves. It is a perpetual statute. 32 “The priest who is anointed and ordained to act as high priest in place of his father is to make atonement. He is to put on the linen garments, the holy garments,
100-200 C.E.
Onkelos Leviticus 16:31
Targum
30 For on that day he shall make atonement for you, to cleanse you from all your sins, that you may be cleansed from all your sins before the Lord. 31 A Sabbath of Sabbaths it shall be to you, and you shall humble your souls. It is an everlasting statute. 32 And the priest whom he shall anoint, and who shall offer his oblation, to minister instead of his father, shall make the atonement, and dress himself with the vestments of fine linen, even the consecrated vestments.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 17:7
Hebrew Bible
5 This is so that the Israelites will bring their sacrifices that they are sacrificing in the open field to the Lord at the entrance of the Meeting Tent—to the priest—and sacrifice them there as peace-offering sacrifices to the Lord. 6 The priest is to splash the blood on the altar of the Lord at the entrance of the Meeting Tent, and offer the fat up in smoke for a soothing aroma to the Lord. 7 So the people must no longer offer their sacrifices to the goat demons, acting like prostitutes by going after them. This is to be a perpetual statute for them throughout their generations.”’ 8 “You are to say to them: ‘Any man from the house of Israel or from the resident foreigners who live in their midst, who offers a burnt offering or a sacrifice
130-120 B.C.E.
Samaritan Leviticus 17:7
Samaritan
5 To the end that the children of Israel may bring their sacrifices, which they offer in the open field, even that they may bring them unto the LORD, unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, unto the priest, and offer them for peace offerings unto the LORD. 6 And the priest shall sprinkle the blood upon the altar of the LORD that is at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and burn the fat for a sweet savour unto the LORD. 7 And they shall no longer sacrifice their sacrifices to the gates with which they play the harlot. This shall be a permanent statute to them throughout their generations. 8 And thou shalt say unto them, Whatsoever man there be of the house of Israel, or of the strangers which sojourn among you, that does a burnt offering or sacrifice
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Leviticus 22:28
Hebrew Bible
26 The Lord spoke to Moses: 27 “When an ox, lamb, or goat is born, it must be under the care of its mother seven days, but from the eighth day onward it will be acceptable as an offering gift to the Lord. 28 You must not slaughter an ox or a sheep and its young on the same day. 29 When you sacrifice a thanksgiving offering to the Lord, you must sacrifice it so that it is acceptable for your benefit. 30 On that very day it must be eaten; you must not leave any part of it over until morning. I am the Lord. 31 “You must be sure to do my commandments. I am the Lord. 32 You must not profane my holy name, and I will be sanctified in the midst of the Israelites. I am the Lord who sanctifies you, 33 the one who brought you out from the land of Egypt to be your God. I am the Lord.”
300-1200 C.E.
A kid of the goats is to be chosen likewise, in memorial of the righteousness of that perfect one who made the savoury meat of the kid, and brought it to his father, and was made worthy to receive the order of the blessing: wherefore Mosheh the prophet explaineth, saying: Sons of Israel, my people, When a bullock, or a lamb, or a kid is brought forth according, to the manner of the world, it shall be seven days after its dam, that there may be evidence that it is not imperfect; and on the eighth day and thenceforth, it is acceptable to be offered an oblation to the Name of the Lord. Sons of Israel, my people, as our Father in heaven is merciful, so shall you be merciful on earth: neither cow, nor ewe, shall you sacrifice along with her young on the same day. And when you offer a sacrifice of thanksgiving to the Name of the Lord, you shall offer so as to be accepted. It shall be eaten on that day, none shall remain till the morning: I am the Lord. And you shall observe My commandments to do them I am the Lord who give a good reward, to them who keep My commandments and My laws. Nor shall you profane My Holy Name, that I may be hallowed among the children of Israel.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Numbers 5:11
Hebrew Bible
17 The priest will then take holy water in a pottery jar, and take some of the dust that is on the floor of the tabernacle, and put it into the water. 18 Then the priest will have the woman stand before the Lord, and he will uncover the woman’s head and put the grain offering for remembering in her hands, which is the grain offering of suspicion. The priest will hold in his hand the bitter water that brings a curse. 19 Then the priest will put the woman under oath and say to her, “If no other man has gone to bed with you, and if you have not gone astray and become defiled while under your husband’s authority, may you be free from this bitter water that brings a curse. 20 But if you have gone astray while under your husband’s authority, and if you have defiled yourself and some man other than your husband has had sexual relations with you—” 21 (then the priest will put the woman under the oath of the curse and will say to her) “the Lord make you an attested curse among your people if the Lord makes your thigh fall away and your abdomen swell, 22 and this water that causes the curse will go into your stomach and make your abdomen swell and your thigh rot.” Then the woman must say, “Amen, amen.”
130-150 C.E.
Protoevangelium of James 16
Pseudepigrapha
16 The priest said, “Give up the virgin you received from the temple of the Lord.” Joseph broke down in tears. The priest continued, “I will make you drink the water of the Lord’s ordeal, and He will reveal your sins to you.” The priest took the water, gave it to Joseph to drink, and sent him to the hill country. Joseph returned unharmed. Then the priest gave the water to Mary, sent her to the hill country as well, and she too returned unharmed. Everyone was amazed that no sin was found in them. The priest said, “If the Lord God hasn’t revealed your sins, then I do not judge you.” He sent them away, and Joseph took Mary and went home, rejoicing and praising the God of Israel.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Numbers 19:2
Hebrew Bible
1 The Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron: 2 “This is the ordinance of the law that the Lord has commanded: ‘Instruct the Israelites to bring you a red heifer without blemish, which has no defect and has never carried a yoke. 3 You must give it to Eleazar the priest so that he can take it outside the camp, and it must be slaughtered before him.
300-1200 C.E.
Pseudo Jonathan Numbers 19:2
Targum
AND the Lord spake with Mosheh and Aharon, saying: This is the decree, the publication of the law which the Lord hath commanded, saying; Speak to the sons of Israel, that they bring to thee from the separation of the fold a red heifer, two years old, in which there is neither spot nor white hair, on which no male hath come, nor the burden of any work been imposed, neither hurt by the thong, nor grieved by the goad or prick, nor collar (band) or any like yoke.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Numbers 19:9
Hebrew Bible
7 Then the priest must wash his clothes and bathe himself in water, and afterward he may come into the camp, but the priest will be ceremonially unclean until evening. 8 The one who burns it must wash his clothes in water and bathe himself in water. He will be ceremonially unclean until evening. 9 “‘Then a man who is ceremonially clean must gather up the ashes of the red heifer and put them in a ceremonially clean place outside the camp. They must be kept for the community of the Israelites for use in the water of purification—it is a purification for sin. 10 The one who gathers the ashes of the heifer must wash his clothes and be ceremonially unclean until evening. This will be a permanent ordinance both for the Israelites and the resident foreigner who lives among them.
300-1200 C.E.
Pseudo Jonathan Numbers 19:9
Targum
And the priest who slew the heifer shall wash his dress in forty satas of water, and afterwards he may go into the camp; but the priest before his ablution shall be unclean until the evening And the priest who was employed in the burning shall wash his dress in forty satas of water, and his flesh in forty satas, and before his ablution shall be unclean until the evening And a man, a priest who is clean, shall gather up the ashes of the heifer in an earthenware receptacle, its opening covered round about with clay; and shall divide the ashes into three portions, of which one shall be placed within the wall (of Jerusalem), another in the Mount of Olives, and the third portion be in the custody of the Levites; and it shall be for the congregation of Israel, for the Water of Sprinkling: it is the heifer (immolated) for the remission of sins.
5th Century B.C.E. (Final composition)
Numbers 19:9
Hebrew Bible
2 “This is the ordinance of the law that the Lord has commanded: ‘Instruct the Israelites to bring you a red heifer without blemish, which has no defect and has never carried a yoke. 3 You must give it to Eleazar the priest so that he can take it outside the camp, and it must be slaughtered before him. 4 Eleazar the priest is to take some of its blood with his finger, and sprinkle some of the blood seven times in the direction of the front of the tent of meeting. 5 Then the heifer must be burned in his sight—its skin, its flesh, its blood, and its offal is to be burned. 6 And the priest must take cedar wood, hyssop, and scarlet wool and throw them into the midst of the fire where the heifer is burning. 7 Then the priest must wash his clothes and bathe himself in water, and afterward he may come into the camp, but the priest will be ceremonially unclean until evening. 8 The one who burns it must wash his clothes in water and bathe himself in water. He will be ceremonially unclean until evening. 9 “‘Then a man who is ceremonially clean must gather up the ashes of the red heifer and put them in a ceremonially clean place outside the camp. They must be kept for the community of the Israelites for use in the water of purification—it is a purification for sin. 10 The one who gathers the ashes of the heifer must wash his clothes and be ceremonially unclean until evening. This will be a permanent ordinance both for the Israelites and the resident foreigner who lives among them.
80-120 C.E.
Barnabas 8:1
Early Christian
1 What do you think the type implies when the command is given to Israel that those people whose sins are mature should offer a heifer, slaughter it, and burn it, and then the children collect the ashes, put them into vessels, and twist the scarlet wool on a tree—here again is the type of the cross and the scarlet wool—and the hyssop, and once that is done, the children sprinkle the people one by one so that they may be purified from their sins? 2 Understand how plainly this is said to you: the calf is Jesus; the men who offer it, being sinners, are those who offered Him for slaughter. From then on it is no longer men who offer, and the glory is no longer for sinners. 3 The children who sprinkle are those who preached to us the forgiveness of sins and the purification of our heart—they, being twelve in number for a testimony to the tribes (for there are twelve tribes of Israel)—to whom He gave authority over the Gospel, that they might preach it.