Timeline

Heavenly Languages

Glossolalia and xenolalia describe two ways that Jewish and early Christian sources present speech given by divine agency: ecstatic utterance that no listener understands, and fluent use of a human language the speaker never learned. Acts presents the disciples at Pentecost as heard by pilgrims in their own native languages, while Paul treats the Corinthian gift as speech addressed to God alone and in need of interpretation. Second Temple traditions supply the background for both, describing angels who praise in their own dialects and a heavenly speech that mortals can briefly share.

Timeline

Genesis 11:9 / Acts 2:6
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Genesis 11:9
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  5 But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower that the people had started building. 6 And the Lord said, “If as one people all sharing a common language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be beyond them. 7 Come, let’s go down and confuse their language so they won’t be able to understand each other.” 8 So the Lord scattered them from there across the face of the entire earth, and they stopped building the city. 9 That is why its name was called Babel—because there the Lord confused the language of the entire world, and from there the Lord scattered them across the face of the entire earth.
2. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 2:6
  
  New Testament
  
  4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other languages as the Spirit enabled them. 5 Now there were devout Jews from every nation under heaven residing in Jerusalem. 6 When this sound occurred, a crowd gathered and was in confusion because each one heard them speaking in his own language. 7 Completely baffled, they said, “Aren’t all these who are speaking Galileans? 8 And how is it that each one of us hears them in our own native language? 9 Parthians, Medes, Elamites, and residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and the province of Asia, 10 Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya near Cyrene, and visitors from Rome, 11 both Jews and proselytes, Cretans and Arabs—we hear them speaking in our own languages about the great deeds God has done!”
Genesis 11:7 / Jubilees 12:25
1. 750–400 BCE
  
  Genesis 11:7
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  5 But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower that the people had started building. 6 And the Lord said, “If as one people all sharing a common language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be beyond them. 7 Come, let’s go down and confuse their language so they won’t be able to understand each other.” 8 So the Lord scattered them from there across the face of the entire earth, and they stopped building the city. 9 That is why its name was called Babel—because there the Lord confused the language of the entire world, and from there the Lord scattered them across the face of the entire earth.
2. 170–125 BCE
  
  Jubilees 12:25
  
  Pseudepigrapha, Hebrew Bible Expansions
  
  25 And the Lord God said: 'Open his mouth and his ears, so that he may hear and speak with his mouth, with the language which has been revealed'; for it had ceased from the mouths of all the human beings from the day of the overthrow (of Babel). 26 And I opened his mouth, and his ears and his lips, and I began to speak with him in Hebrew in the language of creation. 27 And he took the books of his ancestors, and these were written in Hebrew, and he copied them, and he began from then on to study them, and I made known to him that which he could not (understand), and he studied them during the six rainy months.
Isaiah 28:11 / 1 Corinthians 14:21
1. 740–450 BCE
  
  Isaiah 28:11
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  9 Who is the Lord trying to teach? To whom is he explaining a message? To those just weaned from milk! To those just taken from their mother’s breast! 10 Indeed, they will hear meaningless gibberish, senseless babbling, a syllable here, a syllable there. 11 For with mocking lips and a foreign tongue he will speak to these people. 12 In the past he said to them, “This is where security can be found. Provide security for the one who is exhausted. This is where rest can be found.” But they refused to listen. 13 So the Lord’s message to them will sound like meaningless gibberish, senseless babbling, a syllable here, a syllable there. As a result, they will fall on their backsides when they try to walk, and be injured, ensnared, and captured.
2. 55–57 CE
  
  1 Corinthians 14:21
  
  New Testament
  
  20 Brothers and sisters, do not be children in your thinking. Instead, be infants in evil, but in your thinking be mature. 21 It is written in the law: “By people with strange tongues and by the lips of strangers I will speak to this people, yet not even in this way will they listen to me,” says the Lord. 22 So then, tongues are a sign not for believers but for unbelievers. Prophecy, however, is not for unbelievers but for believers. 23 So if the whole church comes together and all speak in tongues, and unbelievers or uninformed people enter, will they not say that you have lost your minds? 24 But if all prophesy, and an unbeliever or uninformed person enters, he will be convicted by all, he will be called to account by all.
Zechariah 8:23 / Acts 2:11
1. 500–401 BCE
  
  Zechariah 8:23
  
  Hebrew Bible
  
  21 The inhabitants of one will go to another and say, “Let’s go up at once to ask the favor of the Lord, to seek the Lord of Heaven’s Armies. Indeed, I’ll go with you.”’ 22 Many peoples and powerful nations will come to Jerusalem to seek the Lord of Heaven’s Armies and to ask his favor. 23 The Lord of Heaven’s Armies says, ‘In those days 10 people from all languages and nations will grasp hold of—indeed, grab—the robe of one Jew and say, “Let us go with you, for we have heard that God is with you.”’”
2. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 2:11
  
  New Testament
  
  4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other languages as the Spirit enabled them. 5 Now there were devout Jews from every nation under heaven residing in Jerusalem. 6 When this sound occurred, a crowd gathered and was in confusion because each one heard them speaking in his own language. 7 Completely baffled, they said, “Aren’t all these who are speaking Galileans? 8 And how is it that each one of us hears them in our own native language? 9 Parthians, Medes, Elamites, and residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and the province of Asia, 10 Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya near Cyrene, and visitors from Rome, 11 both Jews and proselytes, Cretans and Arabs—we hear them speaking in our own languages about the great deeds God has done!” 12 All were astounded and greatly confused, saying to one another, “What does this mean?”
LXX Genesis 11:7 / Acts 2:6
1. 300–201 BCE
  
  LXX Genesis 11:7
  
  Septuagint
  
  5 And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the sons of men built. 6 And the Lord said, Look, there is one race, and one lip of all, and they have begun to do this, and now nothing shall fail from them of all that they may have undertaken to do. 7 Come, and having gone down let us there confound their tongue, that they may not understand each the voice of his neighbor. 8 And the Lord scattered them from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city and the tower. 9 On this account its name was called Confusion, because there the Lord confounded the languages of all the earth, and from there the Lord God scattered them upon the face of all the earth.
2. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 2:6
  
  New Testament
  
  4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other languages as the Spirit enabled them. 5 Now there were devout Jews from every nation under heaven residing in Jerusalem. 6 When this sound occurred, a crowd gathered and was in confusion because each one heard them speaking in his own language. 7 Completely baffled, they said, “Aren’t all these who are speaking Galileans? 8 And how is it that each one of us hears them in our own native language?
Apocalypse of Zephaniah 8:4 / 1 Corinthians 14:14
1. 100 BCE – 175 CE
  
  Apocalypse of Zephaniah 8:4
  
  Pseudepigrapha, Apocalypses
  
  1 They took my hand and lifted me into that boat, 2 and thousands upon thousands and tens of thousands upon tens of thousands of angels began to sing before me. 3 I too put on an angel's robe, and I saw all those angels praying. 4 I too began to pray together with them, and I understood their language, which they spoke with me. 5 So now, my sons, this is the contest in which the good and the evil are weighed on a scale.
2. 55–57 CE
  
  1 Corinthians 14:14
  
  New Testament
  
  13 So then, one who speaks in a tongue should pray that he may interpret. 14 If I pray in a tongue, my spirit prays, but my mind is unproductive. 15 What should I do? I will pray with my spirit, but I will also pray with my mind. I will sing praises with my spirit, but I will also sing praises with my mind. 16 Otherwise, if you are praising God with your spirit, how can someone without the gift say “Amen” to your thanksgiving, since he does not know what you are saying? 17 For you are certainly giving thanks well, but the other person is not strengthened.
Testament of Job 11:24 / 1 Corinthians 13:1
1. 75–50 BCE
  
  Testament of Job 11:24
  
  Pseudepigrapha, Testaments
  
  22 Rise then and gird these around you before I die in order that you may see the angels come at my parting so that you may behold with wonder the powers of God.” 23 Then rose the one whose name was Day Yemima and wound it around herself; and immediately she departed her body, as her father had said, and she put on another heart, as if she never cared for earthly things. 24 And she sang angelic hymns in the voice of angels, and she chanted forth the angelic praise of God while dancing. 25 Then the other daughter, Kassia by name, put on the girdle, and her heart was transformed, so that she no longer wished for worldly things. 26 And her mouth assumed the dialect of the heavenly rulers Archonts and she sang the doxology of the work of the High Place and if any one wishes to know the work of the heavens he may take an insight into the hymns of Kassia. 27 Then did the other daughter by the name of Amalthea’s Horn Keren Happukh gird herself and her mouth spoke in the language of those on high; for her heart was transformed, being lifted above the worldly things. 28 She spoke in the dialect of the Cherubim, singing the praise of the Ruler of the cosmic powers virtues and extolling His glory.
2. 55–57 CE
  
  1 Corinthians 13:1
  
  New Testament
  
  1 If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but I do not have love, I am a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal. 2 And if I have prophecy, and know all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have all faith so that I can remove mountains, but do not have love, I am nothing. 3 If I give away everything I own, and if I give over my body in order to boast, but do not have love, I receive no benefit.
Testament of Job 11:24 / Apocalypse of Abraham 15:7
1. 75–50 BCE
  
  Testament of Job 11:24
  
  Pseudepigrapha, Testaments
  
  23 Then rose the one whose name was Day Yemima and wound it around herself; and immediately she departed her body, as her father had said, and she put on another heart, as if she never cared for earthly things. 24 And she sang angelic hymns in the voice of angels, and she chanted forth the angelic praise of God while dancing. 25 Then the other daughter, Kassia by name, put on the girdle, and her heart was transformed, so that she no longer wished for worldly things. 26 And her mouth assumed the dialect of the heavenly rulers Archonts and she sang the doxology of the work of the High Place and if any one wishes to know the work of the heavens he may take an insight into the hymns of Kassia.
2. 70–150 CE
  
  Apocalypse of Abraham 15:7
  
  Pseudepigrapha, Apocalypses
  
  2 And the Angel took me with his right hand and set me on the right wing of the pigeon, and seated himself on the left wing of the turtledove, which (birds) had neither been slaughtered nor divided. 3 And he carried me to the edge of the flaming fire 4 [and we went up as if carried by many winds to the heaven which was fixed on the surface. 5 And I saw in the air] at the height we had reached, a strong light that was impossible to describe, 6 and look, in this light there was a fiercely burning fire, and many people who looked like men, 7 all (constantly) changing in appearance and form, running and being transformed, and worshiping and crying out words whose sounds I did not recognize.
Philo, The Decalogue 1:46 / Acts 2:3
1. 1–50 CE
  
  Philo, The Decalogue 1:46
  
  Classical
  
  45 The people stood nearby. They had kept themselves pure by avoiding sexual intercourse with women and abstaining from every pleasure except eating the food they needed. For three days they had purified themselves by bathing and washing, and they had washed their clothes. Now, all dressed in pure white robes, they stood on tiptoe and listened eagerly, following Moses' instructions to prepare for the solemn assembly. He knew it would take place when he alone was summoned up to deliver God's prophetic commands. 46 And a voice sounded from within the fire that had streamed down from heaven, a marvelous and awe-inspiring voice. The flame spoke clearly in a language familiar to its listeners, expressing its words so distinctly that the people seemed to see the voice rather than hear it. 47 And the law confirms this statement when it says, "And all the people saw the voice clearly." For the truth is that the voice of men is made to be heard, but the voice of God is truly meant to be seen. Why is this? Because what God says is not words but actions, which the eyes judge before the ears do.
2. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 2:3
  
  New Testament
  
  1 Now when the day of Pentecost had come, they were all together in one place. 2 Suddenly a sound like a violent wind blowing came from heaven and filled the entire house where they were sitting. 3 And tongues spreading out like a fire appeared to them and came to rest on each one of them. 4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other languages as the Spirit enabled them. 5 Now there were devout Jews from every nation under heaven residing in Jerusalem. 6 When this sound occurred, a crowd gathered and was in confusion because each one heard them speaking in his own language. 7 Completely baffled, they said, “Aren’t all these who are speaking Galileans?
1 Corinthians 14:2 / Acts 2:6
1. 55–57 CE
  
  1 Corinthians 14:2
  
  New Testament
  
  1 Pursue love and be eager for the spiritual gifts, especially that you may prophesy. 2 For the one speaking in a tongue does not speak to people but to God, for no one understands; he is speaking mysteries by the Spirit. 3 But the one who prophesies speaks to people for their strengthening, encouragement, and consolation. 4 The one who speaks in a tongue builds himself up, but the one who prophesies builds up the church. 5 I wish you all spoke in tongues, but even more that you would prophesy. The one who prophesies is greater than the one who speaks in tongues, unless he interprets so that the church may be strengthened.
2. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 2:6
  
  New Testament
  
  4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other languages as the Spirit enabled them. 5 Now there were devout Jews from every nation under heaven residing in Jerusalem. 6 When this sound occurred, a crowd gathered and was in confusion because each one heard them speaking in his own language. 7 Completely baffled, they said, “Aren’t all these who are speaking Galileans? 8 And how is it that each one of us hears them in our own native language?
1 Corinthians 14:2 / Apocalypse of Abraham 15:7
1. 55–57 CE
  
  1 Corinthians 14:2
  
  New Testament
  
  1 Pursue love and be eager for the spiritual gifts, especially that you may prophesy. 2 For the one speaking in a tongue does not speak to people but to God, for no one understands; he is speaking mysteries by the Spirit. 3 But the one who prophesies speaks to people for their strengthening, encouragement, and consolation. 4 The one who speaks in a tongue builds himself up, but the one who prophesies builds up the church. 5 I wish you all spoke in tongues, but even more that you would prophesy. The one who prophesies is greater than the one who speaks in tongues, unless he interprets so that the church may be strengthened.
2. 70–150 CE
  
  Apocalypse of Abraham 15:7
  
  Pseudepigrapha, Apocalypses
  
  2 And the Angel took me with his right hand and set me on the right wing of the pigeon, and seated himself on the left wing of the turtledove, which (birds) had neither been slaughtered nor divided. 3 And he carried me to the edge of the flaming fire 4 [and we went up as if carried by many winds to the heaven which was fixed on the surface. 5 And I saw in the air] at the height we had reached, a strong light that was impossible to describe, 6 and look, in this light there was a fiercely burning fire, and many people who looked like men, 7 all (constantly) changing in appearance and form, running and being transformed, and worshiping and crying out words whose sounds I did not recognize.
Mark 16:17 / Acts 2:4
1. 60–75 CE
  
  Mark 16:17
  
  New Testament
  
  15 He said to them, “Go into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature. 16 The one who believes and is baptized will be saved, but the one who does not believe will be condemned. 17 These signs will accompany those who believe: In my name they will drive out demons; they will speak in new languages; 18 they will pick up snakes with their hands, and whatever poison they drink will not harm them; they will place their hands on the sick and they will be well.”
2. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 2:4
  
  New Testament
  
  1 Now when the day of Pentecost had come, they were all together in one place. 2 Suddenly a sound like a violent wind blowing came from heaven and filled the entire house where they were sitting. 3 And tongues spreading out like a fire appeared to them and came to rest on each one of them. 4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other languages as the Spirit enabled them. 5 Now there were devout Jews from every nation under heaven residing in Jerusalem. 6 When this sound occurred, a crowd gathered and was in confusion because each one heard them speaking in his own language.
Acts 2:4 / Acts 10:46
1. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 2:4
  
  New Testament
  
  1 Now when the day of Pentecost had come, they were all together in one place. 2 Suddenly a sound like a violent wind blowing came from heaven and filled the entire house where they were sitting. 3 And tongues spreading out like a fire appeared to them and came to rest on each one of them. 4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other languages as the Spirit enabled them. 5 Now there were devout Jews from every nation under heaven residing in Jerusalem. 6 When this sound occurred, a crowd gathered and was in confusion because each one heard them speaking in his own language.
2. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 10:46
  
  New Testament
  
  44 While Peter was still speaking these words, the Holy Spirit fell on all those who heard the message. 45 The circumcised believers who had accompanied Peter were greatly astonished that the gift of the Holy Spirit had been poured out even on the Gentiles, 46 for they heard them speaking in tongues and praising God. Then Peter said, 47 “No one can withhold the water for these people to be baptized, who have received the Holy Spirit just as we did, can he?” 48 So he gave orders to have them baptized in the name of Jesus Christ. Then they asked him to stay for several days.
Acts 2:4 / Acts 19:6
1. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 2:4
  
  New Testament
  
  1 Now when the day of Pentecost had come, they were all together in one place. 2 Suddenly a sound like a violent wind blowing came from heaven and filled the entire house where they were sitting. 3 And tongues spreading out like a fire appeared to them and came to rest on each one of them. 4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other languages as the Spirit enabled them. 5 Now there were devout Jews from every nation under heaven residing in Jerusalem. 6 When this sound occurred, a crowd gathered and was in confusion because each one heard them speaking in his own language.
2. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 19:6
  
  New Testament
  
  1 While Apollos was in Corinth, Paul went through the inland regions and came to Ephesus. He found some disciples there 2 and said to them, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” They replied, “No, we have not even heard that there is a Holy Spirit.” 3 So Paul said, “Into what then were you baptized?” “Into John’s baptism,” they replied. 4 Paul said, “John baptized with a baptism of repentance, telling the people to believe in the one who was to come after him, that is, in Jesus.” 5 When they heard this, they were baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus, 6 and when Paul placed his hands on them, the Holy Spirit came upon them, and they began to speak in tongues and to prophesy. 7 (Now there were about twelve men in all.)
Acts 2:4 / Exodus Rabbah 5:9
1. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 2:4
  
  New Testament
  
  2 Suddenly a sound like a violent wind blowing came from heaven and filled the entire house where they were sitting. 3 And tongues spreading out like a fire appeared to them and came to rest on each one of them. 4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other languages as the Spirit enabled them. 5 Now there were devout Jews from every nation under heaven residing in Jerusalem. 6 When this sound occurred, a crowd gathered and was in confusion because each one heard them speaking in his own language. 7 Completely baffled, they said, “Aren’t all these who are speaking Galileans? 8 And how is it that each one of us hears them in our own native language? 9 Parthians, Medes, Elamites, and residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and the province of Asia, 10 Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya near Cyrene, and visitors from Rome, 11 both Jews and proselytes, Cretans and Arabs—we hear them speaking in our own languages about the great deeds God has done!” 12 All were astounded and greatly confused, saying to one another, “What does this mean?”
2. 1200 CE
  
  Exodus Rabbah 5:9
  
  Rabbinic
  
  When the Holy One blessed be He gave the Torah at Sinai, He displayed His voice to Israel with miracles and wonders. How so? The Holy One blessed be He would speak, and the voice emerged and circulated throughout the world. Israel heard the voice coming to them from the south and were running to the south to greet the voice. From the south it shifted for them to the north, and they were running to the north. From the north it shifted to the east, and they were running to the east. From the east it shifted for them to the west, and they were running to the west. From the west it shifted for them to the heavens, and they were raising their eyes. It shifted to the earth, and they were looking at the earth, as it is stated: “From the heavens, He sounded His voice to you to admonish you [and on the earth He showed you His great fire]” (Deuteronomy 4:36). Israel were saying to each other: “But wisdom, where shall it be found?” (Job 28:12). Israel was saying: ‘From where does the Holy One blessed be He come, from the east or from the south?’ As it is stated: “The Lord came from Sinai and shone to them from Seir” (Deuteronomy 33:2), and it is written: “God came from the south” (Habakkuk 3:3), and it says: “All the people were seeing the voices” (Exodus 20:15). Voice is not written here, but “voices.” Rabbi Yoḥanan said: The voice would emerge and divide into seventy voices for seventy languages, so that all the nations could understand. Each and every nation would hear a voice in the language of that nation, and their souls departed. But Israel heard and they were not harmed.
Acts 2:4 / Shabbat 88b
1. 70–90 CE
  
  Acts 2:4
  
  New Testament
  
  2 Suddenly a sound like a violent wind blowing came from heaven and filled the entire house where they were sitting. 3 And tongues spreading out like a fire appeared to them and came to rest on each one of them. 4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other languages as the Spirit enabled them. 5 Now there were devout Jews from every nation under heaven residing in Jerusalem. 6 When this sound occurred, a crowd gathered and was in confusion because each one heard them speaking in his own language. 7 Completely baffled, they said, “Aren’t all these who are speaking Galileans? 8 And how is it that each one of us hears them in our own native language?
2. 450–550 CE
  
  Shabbat 88b
  
  Rabbinic
  
  With regard to the revelation at Sinai, Rabbi Yoḥanan said: What is the meaning of that which is written: “The Lord gives the word; the women that proclaim the tidings are a great host” (Psalms 68:12)? It means that each and every utterance that emerged from the mouth of the Almighty divided into seventy languages, a great host.