Antiquities of the Jews, Book 5

1 When Moses was taken from among people in the manner already described; and when all the solemnities belonging to the mourning for him were finished, and the sorrow for him was over, Joshua ordered the multitude to get ready for an expedition. He also sent spies to Jericho to discover what forces they had and what their intentions were. He then put his camp in order, as he intended soon to cross over the Jordan at the right season. And calling to him the rulers of the tribe of Reubel, and the governors of the tribe of Gad, and Manasseh: for half of this tribe had been permitted to have their home in the country of the Amorites: which was the seventh part of the land of Canaan: he reminded them of what they had promised Moses, and he urged them—because of the care Moses had taken of them, never tiring of helping them, not even when dying, and for the sake of the public welfare—to prepare themselves and readily fulfill what they had promised. So he took fifty thousand of them, who followed him, and he marched from Abila to the Jordan, sixty furlongs. 2 Now when he had pitched his camp, the spies came to him immediately, well acquainted with the entire situation of the Canaanites. At first, before they were at all discovered, they took a full view of the city of Jericho without disturbance and saw which parts of the walls were strong and which were insecure, and which of the gates might allow an entrance for their army. Those who met them paid them no mind, assuming they were simply strangers who tended to be curious about every part of the city, and did not take them for enemies. But in the evening they went to a certain inn near the wall to eat their supper. After they had finished, and were considering how to slip away, someone informed the King, while he was dining, that certain men had come from the Hebrews’ camp to view the city as spies, and that they were in the inn kept by Rahab, anxiously hoping not to be discovered. So he immediately sent men to seize them and bring them to him, so he could examine them by torture and learn what their business was. When Rahab understood that these messengers were on their way, she hid the spies under stalks of flax, which were laid to dry on the roof, and told the King’s men that certain unknown travelers had dined with her a little before sunset and had gone away, and could easily be taken if they were truly a danger to the city or posed any threat to the King. So, deceived by the woman and suspecting no trick, the King’s men went on their way without bothering to search the inn. They pursued them along the roads where they most expected them to have gone—especially those leading to the river—but found no trace, so they abandoned further pursuit. When the uproar had died down, Rahab brought the men down and asked them, when they would soon take possession of the land of Canaan and be in a position to repay her for protecting them, to remember what dangers she had undergone for their sake. If she had been caught concealing them, it would have meant certain destruction, not only for her but also her entire family. Then she told them to head home and insisted they vow to spare her and her family when they took the city and killed all its inhabitants, for she knew from the divine miracles she had heard about that this would surely happen. The spies acknowledged their debt to her for what she had already done and swore they would repay her kindness not merely in words but in actions. Yet they advised her that when she perceived the city was about to fall, she must bring all her possessions and every member of her household to the inn and hang scarlet threads outside her doors, so the commander of the Hebrews would know her home and be careful not to harm her. ‘For,’ they said, ‘we will inform him of this, because of your concern for us. But if any of your family fall in the battle, do not blame us, and we beg that God—by whom we have sworn—will not then be offended with us, as though we had broken our oath.’ So, once they had come to this agreement, the men escaped by lowering themselves on a rope from the wall and returned to their people, telling them all that had happened in their journey to the city. Joshua also told Eleazar the High Priest and the council what the spies had pledged to Rahab, and they confirmed the oath. 3 Now while Joshua, the commander, worried about their crossing of the Jordan—because the river ran with a strong current, and it could not be crossed by bridges, as none had ever been built, and if he tried to build a bridge, the enemy would not allow enough time to complete it, and they had no ferry boats—God promised to arrange the river so they could pass over by removing the main part of its waters. So Joshua waited two days and then directed the army and the entire population to cross in the following manner: the Priests went first, carrying the Ark; then the Levites followed, bearing the Tabernacle and the vessels for sacrifice; after that came the entire multitude by their tribes, with their children and wives in the middle, for fear they would be swept away by the current. But as soon as the Priests entered the river, it became fordable—the depth of the water lessened and the riverbed was revealed—because the stream’s current was neither strong enough nor fast enough to sweep them away. So they all passed over without fear, finding it just as God had foretold. The Priests stood still in the middle of the river until everyone had crossed and was safely on the shore. Then the Priests also came out, allowing the current to flow freely as before. Immediately, the river rose again and returned to its previous depth. 4 The Hebrews then traveled another fifty furlongs and set up their camp ten furlongs from Jericho. Joshua built an altar with the stones that all the leaders of the tribes, at his command, had taken from the riverbed, so it would be a memorial of how the flow of the river was halted. He offered sacrifices there to God and celebrated the Passover, now having an abundance of everything they had lacked so far. For they harvested the Canaanites’ grain, which was now ripe, and took other goods as spoils. It was then that their previous food, the manna, which they had eaten for forty years, ceased. 5 While the Israelites were thus occupied, the Canaanites did not attack them but remained inside their walls. Joshua decided to besiege them. So on the first day of the feast, the Priests carried the Ark, guarded by some of the armed men. These Priests proceeded, blowing seven trumpets, encouraging the army to be courageous, and marching around the city, followed by the council. The Priests only blew the trumpets; they did nothing more, and then returned to the camp. When they had done this for six days, on the seventh day Joshua gathered the armed men and all the people, announcing good news: that the city would now be taken, for on that day God would give it to them by causing its walls to collapse on their own, requiring no labor. He commanded them to kill everyone they captured and not to show weariness or pity. He also forbade them from turning to plunder for personal gain, telling them to destroy all the animals and keep nothing for themselves. Instead, they were to gather all the silver and gold, setting it aside as firstfruits to God, since it came from the first city they would capture. They were only to spare Rahab and her relatives alive, because of the oath the spies had sworn to her. 6 After declaring this, Joshua set his army in order and marched against the city. They circled it again, the Ark going before them, while the Priests urged the people to be zealous in the work. After going around seven times and pausing a moment, the wall fell without the use of any weapons or other force from the Hebrews. 7 The Hebrews then entered Jericho and killed everyone there, striking them down while they were paralyzed by fear at the sudden destruction of the walls. Their courage failed, and they could not defend themselves, so they were killed in the streets or in their homes; no help reached them, and they all perished—men, women, and children—leaving the city full of dead bodies, with not a single survivor. They also burned the entire city and the surrounding area, but they spared Rahab and her household, who had fled to her inn. When she was brought before Joshua, he thanked her for protecting the spies and promised not to be outdone in generosity. He gave her certain lands immediately and held her in high esteem thereafter. 8 If any part of the city escaped the fire, Joshua overthrew it down to the foundation. He pronounced a curse against its inhabitants if anyone should desire to rebuild it—predicting that whoever laid the foundations of the walls would lose his eldest son, and whoever completed it would lose his youngest son. We will speak of what occurred because of this at a later time. 9 There was a tremendous quantity of silver and gold, and also brass, gathered from the city after it fell. No one disobeyed the decree nor took anything for private use. Joshua gave these spoils to the Priests, to be stored among their treasures. Thus Jericho was destroyed. 10 However, there was a man named Achar, the son of Zebedias of the tribe of Judah, who found a royal garment woven entirely of gold and a piece of gold weighing two hundred shekels. Considering it terribly unfair that God should receive the spoils while he, who had risked himself in finding them, should be left without, he dug a deep hole under his own tent and hid them, imagining he would remain undiscovered, not only by his fellow soldiers but by God as well. 11 At that time Joshua’s camp was at Gilgal, which means ‘liberty,’ for now that they had crossed the Jordan, they viewed themselves as free from the hardships they had suffered in Egypt and in the wilderness. 12 A few days after Jericho’s downfall, Joshua sent three thousand armed men to capture Ai, a city above Jericho. However, the people of Ai stood against them and drove them back, killing thirty-six of them. When the Israelites heard of this, they were deeply distressed and overwhelmed, not so much by the kinship ties of those who fell—even though the victims were all worthy men—but by the despair this defeat caused. Whereas they had believed themselves virtually in possession of the land already, with God promising they would suffer no losses in their battles, now the success of their enemies filled them with fear. They put on sackcloth and wept the entire day without even thinking about food, taking their misfortune extremely hard. 13 When Joshua saw the army so distraught and troubled with dark expectations about the whole campaign, he freely addressed God: ‘We did not come this far out of our own boldness, believing ourselves able to subdue this land by our own means, but on the urging of Your servant Moses, for this very purpose. You promised us through many signs that You would give us this land as our inheritance and would keep our army continually superior to our enemies. Indeed, so far we have experienced some success matching Your promises. But now, entirely unexpectedly, we have been beaten and have lost part of our army. This fills us with sorrow, because we fear Your promises to us, as proclaimed by Moses, may not hold. The pain from this first setback is all the worse because it suggests dark days ahead. Yet Lord, we beg You to free us from these anxieties, for You can cure these troubles by granting us victory, which will both remove our present sorrow and protect us from doubting what is yet to come.’ 14 Thus Joshua prayed on his face before God, who answered him: ‘Get up and cleanse the camp of its defilement, for something dedicated to Me has been stolen, and that is why you have been defeated. Once you find and punish the guilty person, you shall again be victorious over your enemies.’ Joshua relayed God’s words to the people and, together with Eleazar the High Priest and the council, cast lots by tribe. When the lot indicated the tribe of Judah, they repeated the process by each family, and the family of Zachar was chosen. Investigating member by member, they identified Achar, who, fearing God’s dreadful judgment, could no longer deny his guilt. He confessed the theft and produced the stolen treasure. Immediately he was put to death, receiving a disgraceful nighttime burial suited to a condemned criminal. 15 Once Joshua had rid the camp of wrongdoing, he led them against Ai by night, setting an ambush around the city. At daybreak he attacked, and the people of Ai advanced boldly, trusting in their earlier success. Joshua feigned retreat, luring them far from the city. Convinced they were pursuing a beaten enemy, the inhabitants foolishly dispersed, losing the protection of their walls. Joshua then gave the prearranged signal to those in ambush, who swiftly entered the city and killed everyone they encountered. Seeing their city burning, the men of Ai were thrown into confusion, their courage broken. With none to support them, they were scattered in the fields and easily cut down. Ai was rich, containing many children, women, servants, herds of cattle, and large amounts of money, all of which the Hebrews captured. Joshua returned to Gilgal and distributed the spoils among his soldiers. 16 The Gibeonites, living near Jerusalem, recognized what had happened to Jericho and Ai and feared the same terrible fate. Certain no mercy would come from Joshua—who waged war to destroy all the Canaanites—they persuaded the people of Cephirah and Kiriathjearim, their neighbors, to join them in seeking safety before the Hebrews arrived to overwhelm them. They sent envoys to Joshua, claiming to be from a distant land with no ties to the Canaanites, drawn there by his reputation for virtue. To prove their story, they wore old clothes, frayed from extended travel, though in truth they had set out with them already worn. Appearing in the midst of the people, they said that their leaders had sent them from Gibeon and the surrounding cities, far from Canaan, to form a mutual alliance, just as was customary among their ancestors. Since, they said, they had heard of God’s favor to Joshua and his conferral of Canaan upon them, they came to join them as citizens. Believing them, Joshua swore friendship and alliance with them, and Eleazar the High Priest and the council vowed not to harm them, with the entire crowd consenting. Having obtained safety by deception, the envoys departed. But soon, as Joshua proceeded to the foothills of Canaan, he learned that the Gibeonites actually lived near Jerusalem and were indeed Canaanites. Summoning their leaders, he rebuked them for their ruse. They replied that it was their only way to survive and so they had been forced to resort to it. Calling upon Eleazar and the council, Joshua and the others concluded they must not violate their oaths, so they assigned the Gibeonites to be public servants, saving them from the doom that was overtaking other Canaanites. 17 Upset that Gibeon had made peace with Joshua, the King of Jerusalem rallied four neighboring kings to join him in waging war against Gibeon. As the kings encamped at a spring not far from the city to begin the siege, the Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help, believing that though the Hebrews had come to destroy the Canaanites, they would save them because of their alliance. Joshua set out overnight with his army and fell upon the enemy at dawn, just as they were about to besiege the city. Defeating them, he pursued them down the slopes of Beth-horon, realizing that God was assisting him with thunder and lightning, and with hail far larger than normal. Furthermore, the day was lengthened so that night would not cut short the Hebrews’ pursuit, allowing them to keep chasing their enemies. Joshua found the kings hiding in a cave at Makkedah and killed them. Indeed, it is written in the sacred records stored in the temple that the day was miraculously extended on this occasion. 18 Overthrowing these hostile kings who had threatened Gibeon, Joshua returned to the highlands of Canaan, slaughtering people there and taking much spoil, then returning to camp at Gilgal. Word spread among the nearby peoples of the Hebrews’ bravery, and those who heard about the vast numbers defeated were alarmed. The kings who lived around Mount Libanus, along with the Canaanites in the plains and allies from the land of the Philistines, gathered an army at Beroth in Upper Galilee, near Cadesh. Altogether they numbered three hundred thousand foot soldiers, ten thousand horsemen, and twenty thousand chariots, so large a force that Joshua and the Israelites felt deep fear. But God, reproaching them for their cowardice, asked whether they required more help than He could provide, and assured them of victory. Furthermore, He instructed them to cripple the enemy horses and burn their chariots. Growing bold from God’s promise, Joshua marched five days and engaged the enemy. The fighting was fierce, and the number of those killed was beyond anything those hearing of it could believe. The enemy was utterly destroyed, only a few escaping. All their kings died in the battle. With no one left to oppose him, Joshua destroyed the horses, burned the chariots, and roamed throughout their country without resistance, capturing cities and killing all who were taken. 19 By the fifth year, no Canaanites remained except those who had fled to extremely fortified places. Joshua then moved his camp to the hill country, placing the Tabernacle at the city of Shiloh—chosen for its favorable location—until there would be an opportunity to build a temple. From there, he went on to Shechem, together with the people, and built an altar where Moses had long ago instructed. Dividing his force, he stationed half of them on Mount Gerizzim, the other half on Mount Ebal, where the altar stood. He placed there the tribe of Levi and the Priests, and after sacrificing, pronouncing the curses, and engraving them on the altar, they returned to Shiloh. 20 By this time Joshua had grown old, and he saw that certain Canaanite cities were difficult to capture, not only because of their strong positions but also due to their thick walls built over many years in anticipation of an Israelite attack. Gathering the people at Shiloh, he reminded them how well they had prospered and how many glorious deeds had been accomplished, worthy of the God who enabled them and the virtue of their laws. He noted that they had defeated thirty-one kings who had dared to challenge them in battle and that no army had resisted them successfully. Those cities that remained would require lengthy sieges, and he believed it just to dismiss the tribes who had aided them from beyond the Jordan—kinsmen who had faithfully shared their dangers—so they could return home. Then he proposed sending one man from each tribe, all men of extraordinary virtue, to measure the land accurately and faithfully, so that eventually all might know its size and nature. 21 The people approved Joshua’s plan, so he dispatched surveyors with geometric knowledge to ensure the accuracy of their measurements, instructing them to note the fertility of the regions as well as the less-productive parts. For the land of Canaan varies greatly—some regions are plains producing abundant crops, though far less impressive when compared with the plains around Jericho or Jerusalem, which surpass all others in richness and beauty. Though they possessed only a small area of this exceptionally fertile land, the rest being largely mountainous, it was excellent enough not to envy any other region. For this reason, Joshua thought it more just to distribute the land by estimating its quality rather than merely by surface measure, knowing that a single acre in one spot might be worth a thousand acres elsewhere. Ten men set out, roaming far and wide, and completed their survey in the seventh month, returning to him at Shiloh, where the Tabernacle was set up. 22 Joshua, along with Eleazar, the council, and the heads of the tribes, allotted the land to the nine and a half tribes, reflecting each tribe’s size. By casting lots, Judah was granted the upper section of Judea extending to Jerusalem, and in breadth down to the Lake of Sodom. This included the cities of Ascalon and Gaza. Simeon’s lot was second, including the part of Idumea bordering Egypt and Arabia. Benjamin’s extended from the Jordan to the sea and in width bordered Jerusalem and Bethel—though narrow, it was a high-quality portion that included Jericho and the city of Jerusalem. Ephraim’s territory stretched from the Jordan to Gezer, and in breadth from Bethel until reaching the large plain. The half-tribe of Manasseh received from the Jordan to Dora, with its width running toward Bethshan, now called Scythopolis. Next was Issachar, from Mount Carmel to the river in length, and in width to Mount Tabor. Zebulon’s land reached the Lake of Gennesareth and included Carmel and the seacoast. Aser’s portion lay in a valley extending opposite Sidon, including the city Arce, also known as Actipus. Naphtali took the eastern parts as far as Damascus and Upper Galilee, to Mount Libanus and the sources of the Jordan at that mountain near Arce. Dan’s lot included the western valley country, bounded by Azotus and Dora, along with Jamnia and Gath, from Ekron to the mountains where Judah began. 23 Thus Joshua divided the land of the six Canaanite nations among the nine and a half tribes, for Moses had already assigned the Amorite land, itself a branch of the Canaanites, to the other two and a half tribes, as we have recounted. The areas near Sidon, belonging to the Arkites, Amathites, and Aradians, had not yet been formally settled. 24 By this time Joshua’s old age prevented him from achieving all he intended, and those who followed him paid little attention to the nation’s broader interests. Therefore, he charged each tribe to eliminate any remaining Canaanites in the region allotted to them, reminding them of Moses’ assurance that their security and their obedience to their laws depended on it. Moreover, he instructed them to grant thirty-eight cities to the Levites, since they had already received ten in the country of the Amorites, including three cities of refuge for those fleeing involuntary manslaughter, as Moses had carefully stipulated. These were, of the tribe of Judah, Hebron; of Ephraim, Shechem; and of Naphtali, Cadesh in Upper Galilee. He also distributed among them the remaining spoils, which were vast—gold, clothing, every kind of furniture, and countless cattle—so that both collectively and individually, they possessed an abundance of wealth. 25 Having completed these tasks, he gathered the army in assembly and addressed the tribes settled beyond the Jordan, reminding them that they had shared in the dangers faced by all. Now that their difficulties were over, he thought it fair to send them home, trusting they would assist again if ever needed, and offering his thanks for their generosity and help. ‘We will always remain grateful,’ he said, ‘for how readily you set aside your own prosperity to aid us in obtaining ours by God’s grace. You have gained great riches yourselves—gold, silver, and other spoils—and, more than that, you have won our lasting goodwill. We, in turn, shall always remember your kindness. Please do not let the Jordan or the distance between us separate us in our hearts, for we are all descendants of Abraham. We worship the same God who delivered our ancestors and who established our forms of government. Remain steadfast in these laws, for God will surely favor those who keep them, and reject those who do not.’ With these parting words, Joshua embraced them, while the rest of the people escorted them some distance, tearful at being separated from their kin. 26 The tribes of Reubel, Gad, and half of Manasseh crossed the river and built an altar on its banks as a monument to future generations and a testimony of their kinship with those on the other side. When the other tribes heard about this new altar but did not yet know its purpose, they suspected it was for a new, unauthorized worship and believed the story, deciding to arm themselves and attack. They prepared to cross the river and punish them for breaking their ancestral laws, refusing to shield them out of mere blood ties if they were betraying God’s will. But Joshua and Eleazar the High Priest and the council restrained them, urging them to send a delegation first to see if their intentions might be clarified. Accordingly, Phineas, Eleazar’s son, led an embassy of ten reputable men to question them about the altar. Summoning an assembly, Phineas demanded to know why they had rebelled in such a grave manner—had they so quickly forgotten God’s laws and turned to foreign gods? Yet he said they were not rushing to punish but, in kindness, had chosen to ask first. If their guilt proved real, they would be punished in war; but if they repented and returned to the law, they would be forgiven. The tribal leaders answered that they had built the altar, not to abandon their shared worship, but as a perpetual reminder of their bond with the rest of Israel, hoping never to forget that all serve the same God and use the same brazen altar at the Tabernacle. They prayed God to witness that this was their sole motive. Pleased by this response, Phineas returned to Joshua and the community, who were relieved to avoid bloodshed and destruction between brothers. They offered sacrifices of thanksgiving to God. Joshua dismissed the great assembly, and everyone returned to their homes. Joshua then lived in Shechem. About twenty years later, when he was very old, he sent for the leaders of each city, and as many people as possible. As they gathered, he reminded them of all the gifts God had given them, raising them from a low station to such high glory and prosperity. He urged them to remember God’s intentions toward them and told them that He would remain their ally as long as they continued in piety. Then, feeling it was his time to leave the world, he gave them these final exhortations. 27 So Joshua, after speaking these words, died at the age of one hundred and ten. For forty of these years, he had served under Moses to learn all he could, and upon Moses’ death, he commanded the people for twenty-five years. He lacked neither wisdom nor eloquence, ably expressing his intentions, and he was bold and courageous in danger, astute in seeking peace for his people, and always virtuous at the proper times. They buried him in the city of Timnath, in the tribe of Ephraim. Around the same time, Eleazar the High Priest also died, and his son Phineas succeeded him. His tomb is likewise in the city of Gabatha.

1 After the deaths of Joshua and Eleazar, Phineas prophesied that, according to God’s will, leadership should be committed to the tribe of Judah and that this tribe should destroy the remaining Canaanites. At that time, the Israelites were anxious to know God’s will. The tribe of Judah took along the tribe of Simeon on condition that when Judah defeated those who had previously paid them tribute, they would do the same for Simeon. 2 The Canaanites, meanwhile, had a flourishing situation and assembled a great army at Bezek under Adonibezek—meaning ‘Lord of Bezek’ in Hebrew—confident that with Joshua gone, they would prevail against the Israelites. But when the tribes of Judah and Simeon engaged them, they fought with great courage and killed over ten thousand of them, putting the rest to flight and capturing Adonibezek. They cut off his fingers and toes, and he lamented, ‘Indeed, I could not hide from God forever, as I see by what I now suffer, having done the same to seventy-two kings.’ The victors carried him alive to Jerusalem, and after he died, they buried him. They then pressed on, conquering many cities. Arriving at Jerusalem, they took the lower city after a considerable effort, killing all the inhabitants, though the upper city was secured by its strong walls and natural defenses. 3 Leaving it for the time, they moved on to Hebron, which they took, killing its inhabitants. There remained there some giants with bodies so large and faces so different from others that they were shocking to see and frightening to hear about. Their bones are still shown today, unmatched by any credible account of other men. The Israelites gave Hebron to the Levites, along with suburbs extending two thousand cubits. They also granted the surrounding territory to Caleb, following Moses’ instructions. Caleb was one of the spies Moses had sent into Canaan. They likewise made room for the descendants of Jethro the Midianite, Moses’ father-in-law, who had left their own land to accompany them in the wilderness. 4 The tribes of Judah and Simeon captured the cities in the mountains of Canaan, as well as Askelon and Ashdod by the sea. But they could not seize Gaza or Ekron, which lay on flat terrain and defended themselves effectively with their numerous chariots. Enriched by victory, these two tribes returned to their own cities and set aside their weapons. 5 The Benjamites, who possessed Jerusalem, required its inhabitants to pay tribute, abandoning any further attacks. All the other tribes did likewise, satisfied with collecting tribute from the Canaanites, allowing them to live in peace. 6 The tribe of Ephraim, meanwhile, laid siege to Bethel but made little progress for a long time. Finally, they caught one of the men who came out for supplies and promised him safety for himself and his family if he would betray the city. On that agreement, he led them in, and they took Bethel, killing all its inhabitants except this man and his household. 7 After that, the Israelites grew negligent in warfare and devoted themselves to agriculture, which brought them prosperity and wealth. They also neglected strict observance of their political and religious laws. Consequently, God was provoked to anger and reminded them how they had defied His instructions by sparing the Canaanites, who were seizing opportunities to oppress them. Although chastened by such divine warnings, they still did not want to resume war, preferring to accept tribute and live comfortably. This neglect of good governance led to serious unrest and, ultimately, civil conflict, as follows. 8 A certain Levite from the tribe of Ephraim, of humble family, had taken a wife from Bethlehem, in the tribe of Judah. He was very fond of her, captivated by her beauty, but she did not return his affection, and their constant quarrels led her to leave him and return to her parents. After four months, the husband, missing her and pained by their separation, journeyed to her parents’ house, made peace with her, and stayed there four days, receiving kind hospitality. On the fifth day, despite the parents delaying his departure until evening, he set out with one servant and one donkey, on which his wife rode. When they had traveled about thirty furlongs, near Jerusalem, the servant urged that they spend the night somewhere safe, fearing trouble if they went on in the dark, especially with enemies potentially nearby. But the Levite refused, not wanting to stay among strangers in a Canaanite city. Instead, he pushed on twenty furlongs farther and arrived at Gibeah, a Benjamite city, as evening fell. No one in the public square offered them lodging, until an old man, originally from Ephraim but living in Gibeah, returned from his field. Seeing them, he asked their circumstances, and learning they were fellow tribesmen headed home from Bethlehem, he offered them his hospitality out of both kinship and kindness. 9 Some young men of Gibeah, noticing the Levite’s wife and admiring her beauty, learned she was staying with this old man. That night, they came to the door, intending to abuse her, presuming the small household could not resist. The old man went out, imploring them not to commit such vile wrongdoing against his guests. But they threatened him with harm if he did not hand over the visiting woman, ignoring his pleas for righteousness. Desperate, he even offered his own daughter rather than allow his guests to be mistreated, hoping this lesser offense might satisfy them. They refused and forcibly seized the Levite’s wife, took her away, and assaulted her all night. In the morning, they let her go, and she managed to reach the house where her husband was staying, collapsing in shame and sorrow at what had happened to her. Expecting only that she was asleep, her husband tried to lift her gently but realized she was dead. With as much composure as he could manage, he placed her on the donkey and returned home. Then he cut her body into twelve pieces and sent them throughout the tribes, having the messengers explain the crime of those men of Gibeah. 10 The nation was horrified, having never seen such a thing. They gathered at Shiloh before the Tabernacle, consumed by righteous indignation, intending at once to make war upon the people of Gibeah. Yet the council advised that they first send ambassadors to demand that the perpetrators be handed over to face justice, since it was part of their law that even foreigners should be dealt with diplomatically before fighting. If Gibeah complied, only the criminals would be punished; if they refused, they would face collective punishment. But the inhabitants of Gibeah would not surrender the offenders, proud of their strength and numbers. Other Benjamites also prepared for war in support of Gibeah. 11 Angered by their obstinacy, the Israelites swore that none would give a daughter in marriage to a Benjamite and resolved to fight them with more fury than they had ever shown the Canaanites. They raised an army of four hundred thousand against Benjamin’s twenty-five thousand six hundred, five hundred of whom were famously adept slingers with their left hands. When the battle commenced at Gibeah, the Benjamites prevailed, killing two thousand Israelites. Nightfall ended the fighting, but the following day they once again bested the Israelites, killing eighteen thousand, who then fled in fear. Greatly troubled, the Israelites retreated to Bethel, fasting the next day and pleading with God through Phineas the High Priest that His anger would subside, and He would grant them victory. God, speaking through Phineas, promised success from then on. 12 Dividing their army, the Israelites posted half in ambush near Gibeah, while the others drew the Benjamites out into open battle. Feigning retreat, the Israelites lured them far from the city, until the Benjamites had left even the older men and boys unprotected. Suddenly, the Israelites reversed course and signaled the hidden force, which stormed into Gibeah, taking it easily and killing everyone there. Seeing the smoke rising from their city, the Benjamites realized too late they had been tricked. Trapped in a hollow place, they were surrounded and struck down, except for six hundred who formed a close group, forced a path through, fled to the mountains, and remained there. In all, they lost about twenty-five thousand. The Israelites then burned Gibeah, killing women, children, and all in the other Benjamite cities as well. Driven by anger, they sent twelve thousand soldiers to destroy Jabesh Gilead, which had refused to join the battle. They killed everyone except four hundred virgins, punishing them for not aiding in avenging the Levite’s wife. 13 Soon, the Israelites regretted nearly exterminating one of their own tribes, decreeing a fast in recognition of the punishment that had fallen on Benjamin. They summoned the six hundred who had survived at Rimmon, lamenting not just their loss but the harm that had happened to all of Israel. They allowed these survivors to take the entire land of Benjamin and as much spoil as they could carry, acknowledging that their suffering was deserved for their wrongdoing. The six hundred recognized their guilt before God and joined their fellow Israelites. The four hundred virgins from Jabesh Gilead were given to them as wives. But there remained two hundred men who had no wives. The people wondered how to provide for them, since they had all sworn not to give their daughters to Benjamites. Some suggested that their oath, sworn in anger, could be overlooked for the greater good of preserving a tribe of Israel. Others feared perjury. Finally, one man proposed letting the remaining Benjamites ‘steal’ wives from among the young women who would attend the yearly festival at Shiloh, so that no father or brother would be directly involved in giving them away. Thus, they would not technically violate their oath. In the festival days, these two hundred men, hiding near the vineyards, seized the girls who came out dancing. In this way the Benjamites obtained wives, reestablished themselves, and soon flourished, having recovered from near destruction. 14 This is how the conflict ended.

1 About the same time, the tribe of Dan suffered misfortunes similar to those of Benjamin. When the Israelites had largely laid down their arms to focus on farming, the Canaanites took notice and, unafraid, decided to assemble their chariots and troops to dominate the Hebrews, and so ensuring they could harass them at will. They joined with Askelon and Ekron in Judah’s territory, plus others in the plains, driving the Danites into the highlands and depriving them of any foothold on the plain. Unable to contend in battle, short on land, and with no relief in sight, the Danites sent five men inland to seek territory for resettlement. Reaching as far as Mount Libanus and the lesser Jordan springs by the great Sidonian plain, they found it to be fertile and pleasant. Reporting this to their tribe, they returned with an armed force, built the city Dan—named both for their ancestor Dan and for their own tribe—and settled there. 2 Once more, the Israelites grew careless of vigilance, and their ruin increased as they lapsed in their devotion to God and the laws. Abandoning the orderly arrangements of their community, they lived as they pleased, their behavior growing ever closer to that of the Canaanites. God, displeased with them, allowed them to lose the prosperity they had gained through so much hardship and to be overcome by their own sloth. Chushan, King of the Assyrians, attacked them, defeating their army in several battles and subjecting them to oppressive tribute for eight years. Some were taken by force, others submitted voluntarily, yet all found the burden too great to bear. 3 Eventually, God took pity on their afflictions when they repented and acknowledged that their misfortunes arose from their contempt for the laws. He chose Othniel, the son of Kenaz, from the tribe of Judah, to restore their liberty. Othniel was bold, courageous, and physically strong. He sensed God’s call to free the Israelites from Chushan’s domination, and though few at first joined him, they overthrew the Assyrian garrison. As news of his victory spread, more Israelites rallied to him, and they eventually put the Assyrians to flight beyond the Euphrates. Seeing this proof of his valor, the multitude appointed Othniel as their Judge. He ruled them for forty years and then died.

1 When Othniel died, the Israelites yet again fell into disorder, turned away from God, and neglected His laws. Consequently, Eglon, King of the Moabites, scorned them, attacked, and prevailed in several battles, overcoming their bravest men, and imposing tribute. Eglon established a palace at Jericho, harshly dominating the Israelites for eighteen years. But when they recognized their offense and prayed to God, He once more took pity and resolved to free them. 2 There was a young man of the tribe of Benjamin named Ehud, the son of Gera, a man of great courage and physical strength, though he was best at using his left hand, where his full power lay. He lived at Jericho, became friendly with Eglon by frequently presenting him with gifts, and earned favor among the king’s courtiers. One day, while presenting gifts, Ehud secretly strapped a dagger on his right thigh. It was midday in summer, and Eglon was resting in a cool chamber after his meal, with his attendants off guard, the heat having lulled them to dine. Alone with the king, Ehud said he had a message from God.⁠a Eglon rose excitedly from his throne to hear it, and Ehud, fearing a miss might not be fatal, quickly struck him to the heart, leaving the dagger buried in the wound. Then he slipped out and shut the doors behind him. Eglon’s servants assumed the king had lain down to rest and left him undisturbed until evening, when at last they feared something was amiss, entered, and found him dead. Before they could rally the guards, Ehud had warned the people of Jericho to rise and reclaim their freedom. 3 The people welcomed Ehud’s message. Armed, they blocked the Moabites’ escape at the Jordan. Eglon’s forces learned too late, and many were killed, some trying to flee. More than ten thousand Moabites died, and not one escaped. Through Ehud’s valor, the Israelites threw off Moabite oppression. Because of his deed and other virtues, Ehud became their ruler and served for eighty years, then died. He was succeeded by Shamgar, son of Anath, who died in his first year of office.

1 After Ehud’s death, the Israelites again neglected God’s laws, and so fell under the dominion of Jabin, King of the Canaanites at Hazor, above Lake Semechonitis. He maintained three hundred thousand foot soldiers, ten thousand cavalry, and three thousand chariots under the command of Sisera, his principal general. Sisera brutally routed the Israelites in battle and levied tribute, keeping them oppressed for twenty years. 2 But when the Israelites, once again penitent, prayed to Deborah—a Prophetess, whose name means ‘Bee’—to ask God’s mercy, He decided to deliver them. He chose Barak, from the tribe of Naphtali (Barak means ‘Lightning’ in Hebrew), as their general. 3 Deborah summoned Barak and told him to muster ten thousand young men, since God declared that number sufficient for victory. Barak responded that he would not command unless Deborah joined him. She rebuked him for surrendering the authority God had given him to a woman, but she agreed to go. They gathered ten thousand men and camped on Mount Tabor, where Sisera, at Jabin’s order, also brought his army. Confronting Sisera’s massive force, the Israelites lost heart and considered retreat, but Deborah insisted they fight that very day, for God would grant them victory. 4 The battle began, and at close quarters a great storm burst from heaven—rain and hail driven by wind—which blinded the Canaanites, pelting them in the face, so that their arrows and slings were useless, and the cold prevented them from using swords effectively. The Hebrews, shielded by the wind at their backs, took courage in God’s intervention and fearlessly pressed the enemy. Many Canaanites were killed by the Israelites, some trampled by their own horses, others by their own chariots. Seeing defeat, Sisera fled to the tent of Jael, a Kenite woman, who concealed him. When he asked for a drink, she gave him sour milk, of which he drank so much that he fell asleep. Jael quietly took an iron nail, hammered it through his temples into the ground, and killed him. Soon Barak arrived, and she showed Sisera’s body pinned to the earth, fulfilling Deborah’s prophecy that a woman would triumph over him. Barak also fought Jabin at Hazor, killed him, and destroyed the city. He ruled the Israelites for forty years.

1 Now when Barak and Deborah were dead; whose deaths happened about the same time; afterward the Midianites called the Amalekites and Arabians to help them, and made war against the Israelites, and were too strong for those that fought against them: and when they had burned the fruits of the earth, they carried off the plunder. Now when they had done this for three years, the multitude of the Israelites withdrew to the mountains, and abandoned the plain country. They also made hollows underground and caves, storing in them whatever had escaped their enemies. For the Midianites made expeditions in harvest time, yet allowed them to plow in winter, so that when the others had done the work, they might seize the crops themselves. Indeed a famine followed, and food was scarce. Therefore they turned to their supplications to God and begged Him to save them. 2 Gideon also, the son of Joash, one of the chief men of the tribe of Manasseh, brought his sheaves of grain secretly and threshed them at the winepress, being too fearful of their enemies to thresh openly on the threshing floor. At that time something appeared to him in the form of a young man and said, ‘You are a happy man, beloved by God.’ He immediately replied, ‘A mighty sign of God’s favor to me, that I must use this winepress instead of a threshing floor!’ But the appearance urged him to be courageous and attempt the recovery of their freedom. He answered that it was impossible for him to accomplish this, since his tribe was small, and he was himself young and too insignificant to aspire to such lofty deeds. But the other promised him that God would make up for what he lacked, and would grant the Israelites victory under his leadership. 3 Gideon then told some young men what he had seen, and they believed him; immediately an army of ten thousand men was mustered. But God appeared to Gideon in a dream and told him, ‘Mankind are too proud, and they envy those who excel in virtue. I want them to credit their victory only to Me, rather than to their own strength as a great army. Bring them at midday, in the intense heat, down to the river, and count as brave those who kneel to drink and do not rush to lap water in a panic. Those who bend down anxiously show fear of the enemy.’ Gideon did as God advised, and three hundred men scooped up water in a tumultuous way. God told him to take those men and attack the enemy. So they encamped at the Jordan, ready to cross the next day. 4 But Gideon was afraid, for God had instructed him to attack at night. Wishing to free him from fear, God told him to take one soldier and approach the Midianite tents, assuring him he would gain courage from what he heard there. He obeyed and took his servant Phurah with him. Near one of the tents, Gideon overheard two soldiers talking; one was recounting a dream he had just had, describing how he saw a barley loaf rolling through the camp, overturning the royal tent and the tents of all the soldiers. The other soldier interpreted this vision as predicting the army’s destruction, reasoning that barley was considered the poorest kind of grain, and the Israelites were regarded as the lowest of all the Asian peoples—like barley grain. ‘And if you say you saw the loaf overturn our tents,’ he concluded, ‘I fear God has granted Gideon victory over us.’ 5 When Gideon heard this dream, he was filled with hope and confidence. He called his men to arms and told them what he had overheard, and they likewise took courage and prepared to obey him. Gideon divided his force into three companies of one hundred each, moving out around the fourth watch of the night. They all carried empty pitchers and burning lamps to conceal their attack from the enemy, plus each man held a ram’s horn in his right hand, serving as a trumpet. The enemy’s camp covered a large area because of their many camels, and they were grouped by various nations but all enclosed in one ring. At Gideon’s signal, the Hebrews sounded their horns, smashed their pitchers, rushed at the enemy with their lamps, and gave a mighty shout, crying, ‘Victory for Gideon, by God’s help!’ This startled and terrified the Midianites, who were only half awake. A few fell under the Hebrews’ assault, but most were killed by their own companions, their confusion heightened by language differences, so they turned on one another. Thus a great slaughter took place. As news spread of Gideon’s victory, more Israelites took up arms and pursued the fleeing enemy, overtaking them in a valley hemmed in by streams that they could not cross, surrounding them and killing them all, including their kings, Oreb and Zeeb. The remaining captains led about eighteen thousand survivors a long way from the Israelites, but Gideon, not sparing himself any effort, chased them with his entire army; after engaging them he wiped out the whole army, capturing the other leaders, Zebah and Zalmunna. About one hundred and twenty thousand Midianites and their Arabian allies were killed. The Hebrews took much gold, silver, clothing, camels, and donkeys as spoil. Returning to his own land of Ophrah, Gideon executed the Midianite kings. 6 However, the tribe of Ephraim so resented Gideon’s success that they nearly waged war against him, complaining that he had not informed them about his plans against their enemies. Yet Gideon, being a man of temperance who excelled in every virtue, replied that it was not by his own authority or reasoning that he had gone to war without them, but only at God’s command; and in any case, they, too, shared in the victory. In this way he calmed their anger, preventing a worse division among the Hebrews than any victory could cure. Nevertheless, later on, this tribe suffered punishment for their unfair treatment of Gideon, which we shall discuss at the proper time. 10 7 Gideon was inclined to give up his leadership then, but he was prevailed upon to keep it, which he did for forty years, 11 dispensing justice to the people. His verdicts were accepted by all as binding. When he died, they buried him in his own country of Ophrah.

1 Now Gideon had seventy legitimate sons, for he had many wives. But he also had one child born to his concubine Drumah: his name was Abimelech. After Gideon died, Abimelech went to Shechem, to his mother’s kin, who were from that place, and collected money from certain prominent men known for many injustices. With their help, he returned to his father’s house and killed all his brothers, except for Jotham, who was fortunate enough to escape. Abimelech then ruled like a tyrant, giving himself free rein instead of obeying the laws, and he treated those who upheld justice with brutal severity. 2 One day, during a public festival at Shechem, the entire multitude assembled. Jotham, Gideon’s son who had escaped, climbed Mount Gerizzim, which overlooks Shechem, and shouted to the crowd, asking them to listen to what he had to say. When they fell silent, he addressed them: ‘When the trees had the power of speech, they gathered and asked the fig tree to rule over them. But it refused, content with the honor it possessed in its own fruit, rather than any granted from outside. Still eager for a ruler, they offered that dignity to the vine, which likewise declined, using the same words. Then the olive tree did the same. At last, they turned to the brier, a type of brush fit only for burning. The brier promised to rule zealously, if the other trees would come and rest under its shade, but if they plotted against it, the brier’s fire would destroy them. This story is no joke; you have enjoyed countless blessings from Gideon, yet you now serve Abimelech, aiding him in murdering his brothers. He is no better than a raging fire.’ When Jotham finished, he left, living in the mountains for three years 12 in fear of Abimelech. 3 Not long after the festival, the people of Shechem, regretful of helping kill Gideon’s sons, drove Abimelech from the city and from their tribe. In retaliation, he devised a plan to hurt them. During the grape harvest, the Shechemites feared leaving the city to gather their crops, for fear that Abimelech might launch a surprise attack. A man of rank named Gaal was staying there with his own armed men and relatives. The citizens asked him for protection in the fields, and he agreed; so they went out securely to harvest their grapes. While they ate their supper in various groups, they openly cursed Abimelech. Meanwhile, the Shechemite rulers set ambushes around the city, capturing and killing some of Abimelech’s followers. 4 One Zebul, a Shechemite official who had hosted Abimelech, secretly warned him of Gaal’s incitement of the people against him and urged him to set ambushes near the city. Zebul would coax Gaal out to fight, making it possible for Abimelech to take his revenge. Abimelech therefore set up his ambushes, lying in wait. Gaal stayed outside in the suburbs, with little concern for his safety, and Zebul remained with him. When Gaal saw armed men approaching, he remarked on them to Zebul, who claimed they were just shadows on the hills. As they came closer, Gaal recognized the reality and cried out that men were lying in ambush, but Zebul taunted him for his earlier boastfulness toward Abimelech, challenging him to prove his courage in battle. Caught unprepared, Gaal fought and lost many men, then fled inside the city. Zebul then stirred the townspeople to expel Gaal for his cowardice against Abimelech’s soldiers. Abimelech, hearing of the Shechemites again venturing out to gather grapes, placed his troops in ambush at the city gates, where they killed those who came out. After capturing the city easily (for it could not endure a siege), he demolished it to the foundations and sowed it with salt. Continuing onward, he killed all the Shechemites he found scattered in the countryside. Many survivors took refuge on a towering rock and intended to fortify themselves there, but Abimelech stacked piles of dry wood around them—he himself carrying bundles, inspiring his men to do the same—and set it ablaze. Unable to escape, they all died, men, women, and children, about fifteen hundred people in total, many others as well. Yet people grieved them less than they might have, seeing how they had betrayed the one who had served them so well, acknowledging this disaster as punishment for that betrayal. 5 With the Israelites thus intimidated, Abimelech sought even greater power, apparently stopping at nothing short of everyone’s destruction. He attacked Thebes and captured it swiftly, for there was a great tower where all the residents had fled for refuge. While he was rushing headlong toward the tower gates, a woman dropped part of a millstone on his head. Stricken, Abimelech fell, ordering his armor-bearer to kill him so that he would not be thought the victim of a woman’s hand. The armor-bearer obeyed. Thus he met his end, paying the penalty for murdering his brothers and for his cruel barbarities against the Shechemites. Jotham’s curse came upon them just as he had foretold. Abimelech’s army broke up at his death, each man returning home. 6 Then Jair the Gileadite of the tribe of Manasseh became leader. He was fortunate in other ways and also had thirty sons of good repute, all skilled horsemen, who were entrusted with administering the cities of Gilead. Jair ruled for twenty-two years 13 and died an old man; he was buried in Camon, a city in Gilead. 7 During this time the Hebrew affairs fell into disorder. They turned from God and from the law, and so the Ammonites and Philistines grew contemptuous and ravaged the land with a great army, occupying all of Perea, hoping eventually to seize everything. But through suffering, the Hebrews corrected their ways and prayed to God, offering sacrifices and begging Him not to remain angry with them. Moved by their entreaties, God was inclined to help them again. 8 When the Ammonites invaded Gilead, the inhabitants gathered on a certain mountain but had no leader. There was a man named Jephtha, highly esteemed both for his father’s virtue and for the army he kept at his own expense. The Israelites appealed to him for assistance, promising him leadership over them for life. He initially rebuffed them, complaining of how they had refused him help against his brothers when they wronged him—he was cast out as the son of a foreign woman favored by his father—and that they had come now only because they needed him. But they pressed their oath of granting him the lifelong rule, so he agreed and led them to war. 9 Jephtha set up camp at the city of Mizpeh and sent messengers to the King of the Ammonites, protesting that the land they occupied was unjustly held. The king responded with a counterclaim: that it had once belonged to the Ammonites in ancient times, and the Israelites should withdraw. Jephtha answered that the king had no fair claim to the Amorite land, and should in fact be grateful that Moses had spared the land of the Ammonites when he might have taken it as well. He also declared that he would never surrender territory that God had obtained for them, territory they had held for three hundred years, and that he was prepared to defend it in battle. 10 Receiving no better reply, Jephtha prayed for success and vowed that, if he returned home safely, he would devote as an offering whatever living thing came first to meet him. He then attacked the enemy, achieving a great victory, pursuing them as far as Minnith, seizing many of their cities, and lifting the Israelites’ eighteen-year bondage. 15 Yet as he returned, he encountered a misfortune unforeseen by one who had achieved so much, for the first to greet him was his own daughter, his only child, and still a virgin. Grief-stricken, he blamed her eagerness in meeting him, for she was to be sacrificed to fulfill his vow. Accepting her fate, she saw it as an honor to die for her father’s victory and her people’s freedom. She only asked a two-month reprieve to lament her youth with her companions, and afterward he did to her what he had vowed. He sacrificed her as a burnt offering, performing a rite neither in harmony with the law nor pleasing to God, failing to reflect on how others would judge such an act. 11 The tribe of Ephraim then contended with Jephtha because they had not shared his expedition against the Ammonites, missing out on both the plunder and the glory. Jephtha replied that they had known his own family was arrayed against him, yet they gave him no aid, when surely they should have come swiftly of their own accord. Instead, now that they lacked the courage to fight their enemies, they had turned their anger on their own kin. He warned them that God would punish them, and with the help of men from Gilead he attacked Ephraim, killing many. In their retreat, he seized the fords of the Jordan with an advance force, slaughtering about forty-two thousand of them. 12 Jephtha led Israel for six years 16 and died. He was buried in his own land, Sebee, in Gilead. 13 After Jephtha’s death, Ibzan of the tribe of Judah and the city of Bethlehem took charge. He had sixty children, thirty sons and thirty daughters, all of whom he left alive, marrying off the daughters and obtaining wives for his sons. He accomplished nothing noteworthy during the seven years 17 of his rule; then he died in old age, buried in his homeland. 14 After Ibzan’s death, Elon of the tribe of Zebulon governed for ten years 18 but also did no famous deeds. He died and was buried without incident. 15 Next came Abdon, son of Hillel, of the tribe of Ephraim, born in the city Pirathon. He is remembered only for being blessed with many children, for public affairs were then peaceful and required no great achievements. He had forty sons and thirty grandsons, all excellent horsemen, and he left them all alive when he died, an old man. He received a lavish burial in Pirathon.

1 After Abdon died, the Philistines subjugated the Israelites and made them pay tribute for forty years. 19 Yet they were delivered in this manner: 2 A certain man named Manoah, known for his remarkable virtue, had few equals in his country. He had a wife famed for her beauty, surpassing all others of her time. They were childless, and troubled by this, they often went out to the plain to petition God for offspring. Manoah’s fondness for his wife was extraordinary, making him overly jealous. On one occasion, when she was alone, an Angel of God appeared to her in the form of a strikingly tall and handsome young man. He told her she would conceive a son by God’s providence, an extraordinary child of great strength who would humble the Philistines when he reached adulthood. He also instructed her not to cut his hair or let him drink anything but water, for so God had commanded. Having delivered this message, the Angel left by God’s will. 3 When her husband returned, she told him about the Angel’s message, also expressing her amazement at the young man’s superb appearance. Manoah was suspicious and filled with jealousy but agreed to pray that God would send the Angel again so that he too might see him. Moved by God, the Angel reappeared to her in the plain when she was again alone. She asked him to wait while she brought Manoah, and he agreed. When Manoah arrived, still uneasy, he requested the Angel repeat his instructions, but the Angel replied that it was enough for the wife alone to know. Manoah then asked his name, hoping to thank and reward him once the child was born, but the Angel insisted he had no need of a reward for bringing such news. Manoah begged him to remain a little while, and though the Angel was reluctant, he agreed until Manoah could prepare a gesture of hospitality. Manoah killed a young goat, and his wife cooked it. Then, at the Angel’s urging, they placed both the meat and the loaves on a rock without containers. He touched them with his staff, and when a flame burst out, consuming the food, he rose to heaven in the smoke before their eyes. Fearing they might perish for having seen such a divine presence, Manoah was deeply afraid, but his wife encouraged him, pointing out that God must mean them well by showing them this vision. 4 In due time the woman conceived and took care to follow all she had been commanded. She named the boy Samson, meaning ‘strong,’ and he grew quickly, displaying signs of a prophetic calling—evidenced by his frugal, disciplined lifestyle and his unshorn hair. 5 Once, while traveling with his parents to Timnath, a Philistine city hosting a great festival, Samson fell in love with a local girl and persuaded his parents to arrange the marriage. They resisted, for she was not of Israelite descent, but since this union was of God for the Hebrews’ benefit, Samson prevailed on them. Frequently visiting her parents, Samson was attacked by a lion on one trip, and though he was unarmed, he caught and strangled it by sheer strength, tossing the carcass into nearby woods. 6 On another visit, he found a swarm of bees using the lion’s remains as a hive, and he took three honeycombs. He gave them, along with other presents, to the young woman. However, because of Samson’s formidable power, the people of Timnath feared him and assigned thirty of their strongest youths to keep watch on him during the wedding feast. Samson, in festive spirit, proposed a riddle: ‘If within seven days you can solve it, each of you shall receive a linen tunic and a fine garment as your reward.’ Hoping both for glory and profit, they agreed. His riddle was, ‘Out of the eater came sweet food, though it was itself most unpleasant.’ After three days, they could not solve it, so they pressed the bride, threatening to burn her unless she learned the answer from Samson. She tearfully begged him to explain, accusing him of not truly loving her if he refused. Trusting her, he revealed how he had killed a lion and found honey within it. She promptly disclosed this to her fellow citizens. On the seventh day, just before sunset, they announced the solution: ‘Nothing is more disagreeable than a lion and nothing sweeter than honey.’ Samson answered, ‘Nothing is more deceitful than a woman, for that is how you have discovered my riddle.’ So he paid them their reward, providing thirty garments taken by force from Askelonites, who also were Philistines. Angered, he left his wife, and she disdained his anger, marrying the companion who had arranged their match. 7 Enraged by this offense, Samson resolved to punish the Philistines, including the woman. As it was summer and the fields were nearly ripe, he caught three hundred foxes, attached burning torches to their tails, and set them loose in the Philistines’ fields, burning the crops to the ground. When the Philistines learned Samson was to blame and why, they sent men and burned his former wife and her family, holding them responsible for inciting him. 8 Samson then killed many Philistines in the plains and took refuge at Etam, a strong rock in the territory of Judah. Provoked by these losses, the Philistines marched against the tribe of Judah, who pleaded that they were paying their tribute and should not be punished. The Philistines answered that unless the Judahites turned Samson over to them, the whole nation would suffer. To avoid blame themselves, three thousand armed men of Judah went to Etam, complaining of Samson’s offense against an enemy powerful enough to punish them all. They demanded he submit to them, so they could hand him over. Samson agreed, on condition they swear not to harm him themselves. They bound him with two cords and led him near a place later called The Jawbone, because of what happened there. The Philistines came out to meet them, rejoicing that their enemy was in their hands. But Samson snapped the cords, seized the jawbone of a donkey lying at his feet, and, striking the Philistines, killed a thousand while the rest fled in confusion. 9 Flushed with triumph, Samson at first claimed the victory as solely his own doing, but soon felt overwhelming thirst, realizing human strength is nothing without God. Praying for mercy and acknowledging God’s hand in his escape, he asked not to fall now into enemy hands. God, moved by his plea, caused a bountiful spring of sweet water to gush from a rock. Samson named the place The Jawbone, and it remains known by that name today. 10 Thereafter he held the Philistines in contempt. Traveling to Gaza, he lodged at an inn, but when the rulers of Gaza heard of his arrival, they barred the city gates and set an ambush. Aware of their plan, Samson rose at midnight, tore the gates from their posts, hoisted them onto his shoulders along with the crossbeam, and carried them to a hill near Hebron, laying them down there. 11 In the end, Samson broke the laws of his people, forsaking his previous disciplined life by adopting foreign customs. That was the beginning of his downfall. He fell in love with a Philistine prostitute named Delilah and stayed with her. The Philistine leaders came to her with promises of reward if she would learn the secret of Samson’s invincible strength. When they were together, she repeatedly tried to coax it out of him. At first, he deceived her: he claimed he would become weak if bound with seven fresh bowstrings; but when she put him to the test while he slept, he easily broke free. Then he said new ropes would sap his strength, but once more he eluded her trap. He next claimed his strength would fail if she wove his hair into a loom, but that too was false. At last, Delilah, pressing him day after day—while he was destined for trouble—persuaded him. He explained that God had chosen him from birth and commanded him never to cut his hair, the source of his strength. When she lulled him to sleep and shaved his head, he lost all power, and his enemies seized him, putting out his eyes and binding him, leading him prisoner. 12 But as time passed, his hair grew again, restoring his strength. One day, the Philistine rulers held a great festival, and many eminent men gathered to feast. The banquet hall was built on two pillars that supported the roof. They brought Samson in to amuse themselves, taunting him in their drunkenness. Standing between the pillars, with his eyesight gone, he asked the boy leading him to guide him against the pillars so he might rest. Suddenly, with a mighty push, he collapsed the pillars and brought down the entire structure, killing about three thousand people in the ruin, along with himself. Thus Samson died as he ruled the Israelites for twenty years, 20 avenged upon his enemies at the price of his own life. He is to be admired for his bravery, strength, and bold end, though his passion for a woman led to his downfall, a failing common to humanity. Yet in every other respect, he was most virtuous. His relatives recovered his body and buried him at Sarasat, his birthplace, among his family.

1 After Samson’s death, Eli the High Priest governed the Israelites. During his tenure, 21 the country suffered a famine. Elimelech of Bethlehem, a city in the tribe of Judah, found he could not support his family under such dire conditions. He took his wife Naomi and their sons Chilion and Mahlon and moved to the land of Moab. They prospered there, and he found wives for his sons from among the Moabites, Orpah for Chilion and Ruth for Mahlon. But within about ten years, Elimelech died, then his sons died as well. Naomi, grieving these losses and left without her closest kin—who had been the reason she had departed her homeland—decided to return, having heard her country was thriving again. Her daughters-in-law wished to accompany her, but Naomi urged them to stay in their own land and seek happier marriages than they had with her sons, for she herself faced only uncertainty. Orpah stayed behind, but Ruth refused all persuasion and went with Naomi to share her fate, whatever it might be. 2 When Ruth arrived with Naomi in Bethlehem, Booz, a kinsman of Elimelech, received them hospitably. Because Naomi’s old friends still called her by her true name, she said, ‘Call me Mara instead,’ for Naomi means Happiness in Hebrew, whereas Mara means Sorrow. It was now harvest season, and Ruth, with Naomi’s permission, went out to glean, so they might have something to eat. By chance, she went into Booz’s field. Later, Booz came by, saw her, and asked his overseer about the young woman. Having already learned her story, the overseer explained who she was. Impressed by her devotion to her mother-in-law and her memory of Mahlon, Booz treated her kindly, wishing her prosperity. He told her she might not only glean but also gather freely, instructing his overseer to let her take what she wanted. He shared his meals with her and allowed her to drink as his reapers did. Ruth brought most of this back to Naomi in the evening, along with the grain she had gathered. Naomi, who had also received provisions from neighbors, saved part for Ruth and learned from her daughter-in-law all that Booz had said. Hearing he was a relative, Naomi grew hopeful. Ruth continued gleaning in Booz’s fields alongside his women servants day after day. 3 Not long after, Booz was winnowing his barley and slept that night on the threshing floor. Naomi, discovering this, instructed Ruth to lie down near him, thinking the conversation that followed could prove advantageous. Obedient to her mother-in-law’s request, Ruth hid until midnight, then lay at Booz’s feet. Waking and sensing someone there, he asked who it was. She replied, giving her name and asking him to forgive her boldness. Saying nothing more, he let her rest until just before dawn, then sent her away with a large amount of barley, urging her to go before anyone noticed. He did not wish to give cause for gossip, having done nothing wrong. Concerning the matter of marriage, he told her, ‘A nearer relative than I must first be asked if he will take you as his wife. If he refuses, then I will marry you according to the law.’ 4 Ruth reported all this to Naomi, and they were greatly pleased, hoping Booz would make provisions for them. About noon, Booz went into the city and gathered the council elders, sending for Ruth and that relative as well. When the man arrived, Booz asked if he intended to keep possession of Elimelech’s field, as the law allowed him as next of kin. He said he did. Booz then reminded him that by law the widow of Mahlon, Ruth, must be taken as wife by whoever claimed the field. Unwilling to marry again, the kinsman relinquished his right to Booz. Before the council, Ruth removed his shoe and spat in his face, as required by the law, signifying he had rejected her. Booz thus married Ruth, and within a year they had a son. Naomi cared for him as a nurse, and at the neighbors’ suggestion named him Obed, meaning Servant, since he was to serve her in her old age. Obed was the father of Jesse, whose son was King David, who passed his dominion down through twenty-one generations. I have recounted this story of Ruth to show the power of God, who can raise the lowliest lineage to grandeur, as in David’s case, though he sprang from humble parents.

1 Then, after Samson’s death, Eli the High Priest guided the Israelites. Under him 22 it happened that when his sons, Hophni and Phineas, behaved with great injustice toward the people and displayed impiety toward God, they brought the nation to grief. They stole what belonged to the priestly share and seized by force other offerings. They also corrupted the women who came to worship, some by force, others by bribery. Their whole manner of life was oppressive. Their father, Eli, was angered by their wrongdoing, anxiously foreseeing the divine punishment that must follow, and the crowd was likewise offended. Since God had revealed that misfortune awaited them—both to Eli himself and to the young Prophet Samuel—Eli lived in dread of his sons’ destruction. 2 Before describing these calamities brought on by Eli’s sons, I shall first relate the story of Samuel. Elkanah, a Levite of modest position in the city Ramathaim of the tribe of Ephraim, had two wives, Hannah and Peninnah. Peninnah bore him children, but Hannah was childless, though most loved by her husband. Each year they went to offer sacrifice at Shiloh, where the Tabernacle was then located. 23 After Elkanah performed his sacrifices, he gave portions of the sacrificial meal to each wife and her children. Seeing Peninnah’s children all around their mother, Hannah wept bitterly, lamenting her own barrenness despite her husband’s words of comfort. She went to the Tabernacle to pray, begging God for a child and vowing that if He would grant her a son, she would dedicate him entirely to God, setting him apart from ordinary men. Eli, the High Priest, sat outside and thought Hannah’s drawn-out praying indicated she was drunk, but she explained she had drunk only water and was pleading for a child, so he reassured her that God would indeed grant her request. 3 Hannah, comforted, ate her meal with joy, and upon returning home she conceived. In due time, she bore a son and named him Samuel, meaning ‘asked of God.’ When the baby was weaned, Elkanah and Hannah brought him, along with their offerings and tithes, to the Tabernacle. She remembered her vow and surrendered the boy to Eli, consecrating him to God so that even his lifestyle would be different from other people’s—his hair would not be cut, and he would drink only water. Thus Samuel lived at the Tabernacle, and Elkanah had more sons and three daughters by Hannah. 4 By the time Samuel was twelve, he began to prophesy. One night as he slept, God called him by name. Mistaking the voice for Eli’s, he went to him, but Eli sent him back. This occurred three times. Finally, Eli realized God was calling the boy and advised him to respond directly. So when God called again, Samuel asked Him to speak, saying he was ready to serve. God then revealed the troubles that would soon happen to the Israelites, things barely to be believed, for on a single day Eli’s two sons would die, and the priesthood would pass to the line of Eleazar, because Eli had shown more love for his sons than for God’s worship, to their own detriment. Reluctant to distress Eli, Samuel resisted telling him, but was compelled by oath to reveal it. Thus Eli’s fears about his sons’ fate were confirmed. Meanwhile, Samuel’s reputation grew, for all saw that what he prophesied happened exactly as foretold.

1 About this time, the Philistines again waged war against the Israelites, encamping at Aphek. When battle was joined the next day, the Philistines prevailed, killing more than four thousand Hebrews and chasing the survivors back to their camp. 2 Alarmed at this defeat, the Hebrews sent to the council and the High Priest, requesting they bring the Ark of God into battle, hoping that its presence would ensure victory. They forgot that God Himself had condemned them to suffer and was mightier than the Ark. So the Ark arrived, carried by Eli’s sons, with Eli forbidding them ever to return to him if they survived its capture. Phineas already served as High Priest, for Eli had resigned on account of age. 24 Trusting in the Ark, the Hebrews expected triumph; the Philistines dreaded defeat. Events turned out the opposite of both sides’ expectations. When the armies closed, the Philistines again won, shattering the hopes of the Hebrews, who lost around thirty thousand men, including Eli’s sons. The Ark was taken by the enemy. 3 News of the disaster reached Shiloh through a Benjamite soldier who had survived the fight. The city resounded with weeping. Eli, who sat on a high seat by the gate, heard the uproar and summoned the messenger. Learning the outcome, he paid little mind to the loss of the soldiers or even his sons’ fate, for God had already foretold it. It was the Ark’s capture that weighed most heavily on him, different from what he had hoped. Sinking in grief, he fell from his seat and died. He had lived ninety-eight years, governing for forty. 25 4 That same day his son Phineas’s wife also died; she went into labor upon hearing of her husband’s death and did not survive. However, the son she bore at seven months lived. They named him Icabod, meaning dishonor, in memory of the catastrophe that had happened to the army. 5 Eli was the first from Ithamar’s line, Aaron’s other son, to hold the High Priesthood. Eleazar’s line had initially held the office from father to son: Eleazar passed it to his son Phineas, who was followed by Abiezer, then his son Bukki, then Ozi. After Ozi came Eli, as we have said, and his descendants remained priests until Solomon’s reign, when the lineage of Eleazar reclaimed it.