Antiquities of the Jews, Book 4

1 Now this life of the Hebrews in the wilderness was so unpleasant and hard for them that, despite God’s prohibition against engaging the Canaanites, they would not listen to Moses and remain quiet. Believing they could defeat their enemies even without his approval, they blamed him and suspected that he deliberately kept them in distress so they would continually need him. They decided to fight the Canaanites and claimed that God gave them help not because of Moses’s intercession, but because God watched over the entire nation on account of their ancestors, whose affairs he oversaw himself. They said also that it was on account of their own virtue that they were earlier set free and that God would now assist them, since they were ready to exert themselves for it. They asserted that their own strength would suffice for victory over their enemies, even if Moses tried to alienate God from them, and that it was better for them to be their own masters than to delight in having escaped Egyptian indignities only to suffer Moses’s tyranny, deceiving them so they lived by his will. They alleged God only foretold what concerned them out of kindness for him, as if they themselves were not also descendants of Abraham. They argued that God gave all their knowledge through Moses alone, and that they must go on learning it from him. They concluded it was prudent to challenge his overbearing claims, trust in God alone, and proceed to occupy the land God had promised, ignoring Moses’s alleged divine authority. Considering the hardships they were already in and what they would likely face in these barren regions, they resolved to wage war on the Canaanites, recognizing only God as their supreme commander, without waiting for any support from their Lawgiver. 2 Having arrived at this plan, which they believed best for them, they went out against their enemies. But those enemies, not discouraged by the sheer size of this attack or the large numbers involved, met them with bravery. Many of the Hebrews were killed, the rest of the army was thrown into disorder, and they shamefully fled back to their camp. This unexpected calamity utterly broke their spirits and gave them no hope of anything good, believing this defeat was God’s anger at them for rushing into battle without his consent. 3 When Moses saw how shaken they were by defeat and feared that their enemies, emboldened by success, might seek greater glory and attack them, he decided to lead the army deeper into the wilderness, farther away from the Canaanites. Once more, the people submitted to his leadership, fully aware that without his direction their circumstances would be hopeless. He moved the host and guided them farther into the desert, intending to let them rest there, prohibiting any attempts to fight the Canaanites until God granted them a more favorable occasion.

1 What typically happens in large armies, especially after a defeat, namely being difficult to satisfy and hard to govern, now happened to the Jews. They numbered six hundred thousand and were, because of their vast numbers, not easily managed, even in prosperity; and their anger against their leader, as well as among themselves, was heightened by their present distress and the troubles they endured. For this reason they fell into a sedition unlike any found among either Greeks or Barbarians, which almost resulted in their total destruction, yet they were saved by Moses, who did not hold it against them that he had nearly been stoned by them. God did not allow them to be ruined either; despite the indignities offered to their Lawgiver, God protected them from the horrifying misfortunes this rebellion threatened. I will first set out the cause of this sedition, then describe it, and finally explain the framework Moses instituted for governance once the turmoil ended. 2 Korah was a Hebrew of high standing by both lineage and wealth, eloquent, and adept at swaying people with his speeches. Seeing Moses in a position of tremendous authority, he became resentful and envious. He was of the same tribe as Moses, a close relative, and believed himself more deserving of such a lofty post, citing his large fortune and equally noble birth. He stirred complaints among the Levites (his tribe) and especially among his own family, saying it was deplorable how Moses sought honor solely for himself by dubious means under the guise of divine orders; that, in defiance of law, Moses had given the priesthood to Aaron by no collective vote but by his own whim, bestowing high offices tyrannically as he pleased. He went on that this hidden means of oppression was more outrageous than overt force because it deprived them of power while they remained unaware of his schemes, and that anyone convinced of their rightful claim to some dignity would try to persuade rather than resort to arrogant coercion. But those who see no lawful path to power feign goodwill and use cunning plots to ascend. He urged that the people should punish such individuals while they still imagined themselves hidden, not letting them grow too strong as open enemies. “Why,” he asked, “did Moses entrust the priesthood to Aaron and his sons? If God intended a Levite for that office, I am more worthy than he, for we share the same ancestor, but I excel in riches and in age. If God wanted the oldest tribe, that would be Reuben’s tribe, and then Dathan, Abiram, and Peleth, as its eldest and wealthiest men, should have it.” 3 Korah pretended concern for the public good but actually aimed to have the crowd grant that rank to him. Underhanded motives, cloaked in flattering words, were thus spread among his tribe. Meanwhile, the rumors of wrongdoing against Aaron gained traction in the wider population. Two hundred fifty leading men conspired with Korah, all eager to remove the priesthood from Moses’s brother and to disgrace him. The people themselves, provoked into seditious fervor, tried to stone Moses and assembled in a disorderly crowd before God’s tabernacle, calling him a tyrant and demanding release from the slavery he imposed in the name of divine commandments. They insisted that if God had really selected a priest, he would have chosen someone worthier, not a man inferior to many others, and that if he had decided on Aaron, God would have let the multitude confirm it, instead of allowing Moses to bestow it upon his own brother. 4 Although Moses had foreseen Korah’s slander for some time and was aware that the people had grown agitated, he was not afraid. He was emboldened by the righteousness of his guidance, knowing that Aaron’s priesthood came at God’s command rather than his own indulgence. So he approached the crowd but addressed Korah alone (without speaking to the rest), shouting to him and pointing to the two hundred fifty men: “Korah, you and these here appear fully qualified for this honor, and I do not deny that the entire group could be equally worthy, whether or not they are as wealthy or notable as you. But I did not grant this position to my brother because of wealth, for you exceed both of us in riches, and it was not due to noble ancestry, for we share the same lineage.⁠a And it was certainly not brotherly affection, though that too might be a justifiable reason. In truth, if I had bestowed such an office out of anything but regard for God and his laws, I would not have bypassed myself in favor of another, for I am closer to myself than to my brother. Plainly, I would not endanger myself with wrongdoing just to give him this honorable role. Nor would God allow me to offend him in granting it, or keep you ignorant of his own will. He chose who should perform the sacred office, sparing us that worry, so I claim no authority to give away what he has decided. I invite anyone who wishes to step forth, including the one now holding it. Aaron seeks peace and harmony more than he desires any office, though he was chosen by your consent. Though God appointed him, we accept it only if you approve, for it would be offensive to refuse God’s will when he secures it for all time. Yet it would be foolish to deny it after God has firmly established it. Still, God shall judge once more and show whom he wants to perform the sacrifices and govern religious affairs. For it would be absurd for you, Korah, who covet this dignity, to prevent God from deciding whom he pleases. End your sedition and uproar, and tomorrow morning all who covet priesthood shall bring a censer with incense and fire. You, Korah, leave the final decision to God, and do not exalt yourself above him. Come yourself, too, so this conflict over the sacred office may be settled. We may well let Aaron stand also in this test, being of your own lineage and having done nothing amiss in his priesthood. Gather, then, and offer your incense openly before the people. He whose sacrifice God accepts is the rightful priest, clearing Aaron of the charge that I favored him simply because he is my brother.”

1 When Moses finished speaking, the crowd dropped their unruly behavior and their mistrust of him, praising his words as fair, and they disbanded. But on the next day they reassembled to witness the sacrifices and the decision about the priesthood, and the congregation became disorderly. The people were greatly divided in hope and expectation, some wishing Moses exposed for wrongdoing, while the wiser preferred that the current turmoil end, fearing that continued sedition would overturn their orderly governance. Yet large crowds naturally enjoyed raising clamor against their rulers, constantly shifting their views at each speech and disturbing the peace. Moses sent messengers for Abiram and Dathan, commanding them to come to the assembly to attend the sacred rites, but they refused, declaring they would not let Moses keep aggrandizing himself by shady practices. On hearing this, Moses asked the community leaders to accompany him; he went personally to confront Dathan’s faction, undaunted by their insolence. They did not resist but came out to meet him. Dathan and his allies heard that Moses and the leading men approached, so they stood outside their tents with their wives and children, expecting what Moses would do, having their attendants nearby in case he used force. 2 Moses came near, raised his hands to Heaven, and cried out so that everyone might hear, saying: “Lord of those that exist in sky, earth, and sea, you are the most authentic witness to everything I have done, that all has been under your guidance and that you yourself have shown mercy on the Hebrews whenever they were in need. Now I beg you, see and hear all I say; there is no act or thought hidden from you, so you will not hesitate to confirm the truth on my behalf, ignoring these men’s ungrateful accusations. You yourself saw all that took place before I was born, and as to what has happened more recently, though these men know them, they pretend they do not. Be my witness. While leading a modest, peaceful life, I left behind the blessings I had through my own diligence and your counsel from my father-in-law Raguel; I devoted myself to this people and endured hardships for their sakes, first for their deliverance and now for their preservation, always ready to help them in their troubles. Yet those very men, whose lives owe so much to my labor, are now roused against me. Lord, you who revealed to me the fire on Mount Sinai and let me hear its voice and see its wonders, who sent me to Egypt to declare your will and upset the Egyptian grandeur so we might flee our bondage, who humbled Pharaoh’s power under mine, who dried up the sea for us when we had nowhere else to go and plunged the Egyptians into those parted waters, who gave us weapons when we were defenseless, who turned bitter springs into drinkable water, who supplied us with water from the rocks in direst thirst, who fed us with produce from the sea when the land’s produce failed, who rained us bread from the sky never before seen, who taught us your laws and gave us a model of governance—come now, Lord of all, impartial judge and witness unbribable. Show that I have accepted no bribe to pervert justice or acquitted the rich at the poor’s expense or worked any harm to this community. I stand here falsely accused of handing Aaron the priesthood not by your command but by my own favoritism. Show that all things are governed by your will, never by chance, and that you guard those who serve the Hebrews well; manifest this by punishing Abiram and Dathan, who belittle you as though I had power to trick you. May the earth swallow them, their families, and belongings, visibly showing your might to everyone and letting their distinct fate instruct those who disrespect you. In this way I will be vindicated as a true minister of your decrees; but if any truth lies in their slanders, let them remain unharmed and let me suffer the doom I have called upon them. After punishing those who try to harm the Hebrews, please grant harmony and peace to this people who keep your commands and do not let them share the punishment of the guilty. You know it is unjust that everyone suffer for these men’s rebellion.” 3 As Moses ended, tears in his eyes, the ground suddenly shook, moving like a wind-stirred sea. The people were terrified. The earth around those men’s tents gave way with a loud noise and swallowed all that belonged to the conspirators, so fully that nothing remained to suggest they had ever existed, the earth closing back as before, with no sign of an opening. Thus they perished, testifying to God’s power. Indeed, they deserve pity for this tragic end, yet even their relatives felt no sympathy, regarding them as pests and approving the punishment upon them. 4 Moses next summoned those who contested the priesthood so God could indicate who should serve, that whoever’s offering he accepted would be invested with that office. Two hundred fifty men distinguished among the people for their ancestry or personal merit came, along with Aaron and Corah, each with his censer of incense at the entrance to the tabernacle. Suddenly, an extraordinary fire appeared, unlike any made by human hands or volcanic activity, nor like any blaze naturally ignited in a forest. This flame was fierce and bright, unleashed by God’s decree, consuming Corah and all his faction so completely that not even their bodies remained. Aaron alone was spared, unharmed, because the fire was sent to destroy only those who merited destruction. Desiring that the memory of this event be preserved for all time, Moses ordered Aaron’s son Eleazar to place their censers beside the bronze altar, a perpetual reminder of what happened to those who believed they could defy God’s power. Thus, no one could claim Aaron held the priesthood by Moses’s favor. Rather, God himself had publicly affirmed it, so Aaron and his sons kept that honor unchallenged thereafter.

1 This rebellion did not die down after that destruction; in fact, it worsened. Its deterioration arose from a reasoning that, since nothing happens without divine providence, these events occurred not because the punished men were wrong, but because God had given Moses preference, so they placed the blame on him. They claimed the men had not sinned but had only shown zeal for God’s worship, yet they were destroyed, while Moses, the cause of the people’s losses, escaped any penalty and conferred the priesthood on his brother so securely that none dared challenge it; clearly, seeing those first challengers perished miserably, no one else would risk it. Meanwhile, the families of the deceased pled with the masses to end Moses’s arrogance, saying that was their safest option. 2 Moses had for some time heard the uproar, worrying they might stage yet another uprising, one that would bring severe disaster. He thus summoned the multitude and patiently listened to their defense, not confronting or provoking them, and only asked each tribal chieftain to bring his staff, inscribed with the tribe’s name, so God could show a sign on the rod belonging to the man who would hold the priesthood. They agreed. Everyone brought his rod, as did Aaron, who wrote ‘Levi’ on his rod. Moses placed them all in the tabernacle. Next day he produced the rods so the owners, and indeed the entire assembly, could identify them. They saw that except for Aaron’s rod, which was now crowned with buds, branches, and ripe almonds (the rod had been fashioned from an almond tree), the rest remained as they had been. The people were awed by this miraculous sight. Despite their previous hostility toward Moses and Aaron, they now welcomed God’s decision, thus permitting Aaron to remain priest without further question. God confirmed Aaron’s appointment three different times, which ended this protracted and fierce sedition of the Hebrews. 3 Then, because the tribe of Levi was exempted from military duty to devote themselves to divine worship, Moses, in obedience to God, cautioned that, upon their taking possession of Canaan, the Hebrews should grant the Levites forty-eight good cities with grazing areas stretching two thousand cubits from the walls. Further, he directed the people to pay tithes from their annual produce to the Levites and to the Priests. This was the inheritance given to that tribe. I think it important also to specify what is paid exclusively to the Priests. 4 Moses ordered that the Levites give up to the Priests thirteen of their forty-eight cities and that they set aside one tenth of the annual tithe they received from the populace. He decreed as well that it was fair to offer to God the firstfruits of all produce and to sacrifice the firstborn of all four-footed animals that are recognized for sacrifice if it is male, which the Priests and their whole family were to consume in the holy city. But for firstborn animals not offered on our altars, the owner was to bring a shekel and a half in their place, and for a man’s firstborn son, five shekels. The Priests would also have the first portion from shearing sheep and a share of any bread baked from harvested grain. Moreover, when people completed a holy vow, as Nazarites who let their hair grow long and abstained from wine and then dedicated their hair as a sacrifice, they allotted this hair to the Priests plus the right shoulder of the offering. By these means Moses arranged that the Priests should enjoy ample provision, in addition to their share of offerings for sins, mentioned in the previous Book, in which I stated that only the males among the Priest’s family might partake in the temple of the sin offerings, on the same day they were offered, while wives, daughters, and servants were free to share everything else that came to the Priests. 5 After these rules were established and the uprising was quelled, Moses marched on with the entire army to the border of Idumea. He sent envoys to the King of the Idumeans, asking safe passage on such terms as he might require, and pledging that the Hebrews would not harm his kingdom or his subjects, also offering to pay for any provisions they used, including water. But the King dismissed this proposal and prepared to block them with armed forces. Moses then sought God’s counsel by the Oracle, and God directed him not to strike first, so Moses withdrew his army to circle around the wilderness. 6 About this time, Miriam, Moses’s sister, died. It was the fortieth year since the departure from Egypt, on the first day of the lunar month called Xanthicus. They made a grand public funeral for her and buried her on a mountain known as Sin. After mourning her for thirty days, Moses purified the people in this manner: he took a heifer that had never borne a yoke or done farm work, whole in every part and entirely red, and led it a short distance from camp to a perfectly clean spot, where the High Priest slaughtered it and sprinkled its blood with his finger seven times before God’s tabernacle. The heifer was then burned whole, including skin and entrails, with cedar wood, hyssop, and scarlet wool thrown into the fire. A man who was ceremonially clean gathered all its ashes and stored them in a spotless place. So anyone who had become unclean by contact with a corpse might take a little of those ashes with fresh water and hyssop, use some on the third day and seventh day, and then be purified. Moses decreed the same ordinance for when the tribes entered their own land. 7 Once Moses completed this purification following his sister’s death, he led the people again through the wilderness and the Arabian region until reaching a place the Arabians consider their capital, once called Arce but now known as Petra, encircled by tall mountains. There, Aaron ascended a mountain within sight of the entire army after Moses told him of his impending death, the site being directly before them. Aaron removed his priestly garments and presented them to Eleazar, his son and rightful successor to the High Priesthood, being the elder. He died in full view of the crowd, in the same year his sister had died, at the age of one hundred twenty-three, on the first day of the lunar month called Hecatombæon by the Athenians, Lous by the Macedonians, and Abba by the Hebrews.

1 The people mourned Aaron for thirty days. Once that mourning ended, Moses led them from that place to the river Arnon, which flows from the mountains of Arabia through the desert into the Asphaltitis lake, marking the boundary between the land of the Moabites and the Amorites. This region is fertile and provides abundant sustenance. Moses sent messengers to Sihon, King of that territory, requesting safe passage on whatever secure terms he required, promising not to harm his land or people, and offering even to pay for water if so desired. Sihon rejected the request, mustering his forces to block them from crossing the Arnon. 2 Seeing the Amorite King determined for war, Moses deemed it unwise to endure such an affront. He also wished to shake the Hebrews out of their passivity, the root cause of earlier rebellion (for they were still not wholly at ease in mind). First, he asked God’s consent to fight, and God promised him victory, which emboldened Moses and made him eager for battle. He exhorted the soldiers, urging them to enjoy the combat now that God approved. So, with the license they had long desired, they promptly armed themselves. But the Amorite King, previously confident, lost courage as the Hebrews advanced, and his men, formerly spirited, became fearful. Unable to withstand the first charge, they scattered immediately, hoping their cities’ defenses would save them. Yet this was futile, for the Hebrews pursued relentlessly, taking advantage of their light gear, their skill with slings and darts, and their swift aim with bows. Fleeing enemies found no safety in the river, amid summer heat and thirst, or in the cities they reached; the Hebrews attacked them with arrows and javelins, killing many and wounding the rest. Sihon himself was also killed. The Hebrews gathered considerable spoils from the dead, seized captives, and roamed freely over the land, letting their cattle graze, as the enemy men of war had been annihilated. This was the downfall of the Amorites, who displayed neither prudence in counsel nor prowess in battle. The Hebrews occupied their land, which lies like an island between three rivers: Arnon on the south, Jabbok on the north (which merges into Jordan and loses its name), and Jordan itself flowing along its western edge. 3 After this, Og, King of Gilead and Gaulanitis, marched out against the Israelites with his army, intending to aid his ally Sihon, though he found him already dead. Wishing to test the Hebrews’ strength, he engaged them, but his hopes proved in vain. Og and his entire force were destroyed in battle. Moses then crossed the Jabbok and swept through Og’s lands, razing their cities and killing all their inhabitants, who had been extremely wealthy because of the excellent soil and their abundant assets. Og himself was gigantic and striking in physical form, with extraordinary dexterity to match. People gauged his might from his iron bed at Rabbath, the Ammonite capital, which measured four cubits in width and more than twice that in length. His downfall improved the Hebrews’ situation even more, for it brought them additional successes, so they captured sixty walled cities belonging to Og and took massive spoil, both public and private.

1 Now Moses, when he had brought his army to Jordan, set up camp in the great plain across from Jericho. This city has a very favorable location, and is especially suited for growing palm trees and balsam. At this time, the Israelites grew quite proud of themselves and were very eager for combat. Moses then, after offering sacrifices of thanksgiving to God for several days, and giving the people a great feast, sent an armed detachment to ravage the land of the Midianites and capture their cities. The reason he waged war on them was as follows. 2 When Balak, the King of the Moabites—who from long ago maintained a friendship and alliance with the Midianites—saw how numerous the Israelites had become, he was greatly alarmed for himself and for his kingdom. He did not understand that the Hebrews would not interfere with any land but their own, the land of Canaan, which God had told them not to go beyond. So Balak, in haste and not in wisdom, decided to try words first. He chose not to fight them outright, for the Hebrews had enjoyed such successes—indeed, even their bad fortunes had often turned in their favor—and he thought that if he could, he would stop them from growing stronger. So he resolved to send ambassadors to the Midianites about the Israelites. Now the Midianites, aware of Balaam who lived by the Euphrates and who was then the greatest of the prophets and their friend, sent some of their distinguished princes, together with Balak’s ambassadors, to entreat Balaam to come and lay curses that would destroy the Israelites. So Balaam received the ambassadors hospitably, and after supper inquired of God’s will and the nature of the request from the Midianites. But when God opposed his going, he informed the ambassadors that while he personally was willing to comply, the God who had given him renown for true predictions was against it, because God favored this army they wanted him to curse. Accordingly, Balaam advised them to return home and not persist in hostility toward the Israelites. With that, he dismissed the ambassadors. 3 But at Balak’s earnest and repeated pleas, the Midianites sent yet more ambassadors to Balaam. Hoping to please these men, Balaam inquired of God again. God, displeased with this, told him by no means to contradict the ambassadors’ desires. Balaam did not suspect God’s instruction was actually meant to thwart him. He set out with the ambassadors, but on the way, a divine Angel met him in a narrow path enclosed by walls on both sides. The donkey on which Balaam rode perceived this divine spirit, and pressed Balaam against one of the walls, ignoring the blows Balaam gave her, even after he injured his foot. When the Angel continued blocking the donkey’s path, and more strikes followed, the donkey finally dropped down. By God’s will, she spoke with a human voice, asking Balaam why he struck her, since she had never before given him reason for complaint, and showing him that she was stopped by God’s own intervention. Startled by the donkey’s speech, Balaam then saw the Angel, who reproached him for beating the donkey; for it was the Angel who had come to thwart Balaam’s journey as contrary to God’s purpose. Balaam, now fearful, readied himself to turn back, but God encouraged him to continue as he intended, with the strict injunction to say nothing except what God put in his mind. 4 After receiving this charge from God, Balaam went to Balak. When the King had given him a splendid reception, he asked Balaam to accompany him to one of the mountains so they could see the Hebrews’ encampment. Balak himself went to the mountain with royal attendants, and brought the prophet along. This mountain towered above the Hebrew camp, about sixty furlongs away. Balaam requested the King to build seven altars and bring as many bulls and rams, and Balak promptly did so. Balaam then sacrificed them as burnt offerings, seeking to learn if the Hebrews could be driven away. But he said, “How fortunate is this people, on whom God bestows countless blessings, and whose guardian and guide is God’s own providence, so that none on Earth will be regarded as more virtuous or more devoted to pure living. They will leave these ways as a noble heritage to their worthy children, all because of God’s regard and abundant provision for them, making them happier than any others under the sun. They will take the land to which He has sent them, and their descendants will hold it forever. Their glory will fill both land and sea, and they will become numerous enough to supply inhabitants for many regions, even the islands. More numerous than the stars of heaven, they will never cease enjoying God’s care, blessed in peace with riches, and in war with triumph and dominion. May the children of your enemies dare to oppose you in battle. They will not triumph, nor return victorious, but will go home with great sorrow, for God’s favor will so greatly strengthen you, for He can strip some of their abundance while fulfilling the needs of others.” 5 Balaam thus spoke under inspiration, not by his own power but driven by the divine spirit. Balak, displeased, reproached him for breaking the agreement under which Balaam had come on promises of lavish gifts to curse their enemies. Instead, Balaam had praised and declared the Israelites the happiest of peoples. Balaam replied, “Balak, reflect carefully on the whole matter. Can you believe it rests with us either to be silent or to speak otherwise when God’s spirit overtakes us? He places in our mouths whatever words He chooses, words we ourselves do not foresee. I well remember your and the Midianites’ joyous insistence in bringing me here, and I came so as not to treat you poorly. Yet God is mightier than any plans I made. Those who assume the power to foretell human affairs on their own abilities have no ability to remain silent or speak other than what God dictates, and they cannot act against His will. So although I did not plan to praise these Hebrews or list the blessings God intends for them and their future, His favor and readiness to grant them a good and glorious life demanded it. However, if it pleases you and the Midianites who have earnestly asked for my help, let us raise other altars and offer the same sacrifices as before, and see if God might permit me to bind these people with a curse.” Balak followed through again, but God would not, even after these second sacrifices, allow Balaam to curse the Israelites. At that, Balaam fell on his face and prophesied the disasters that would happen to various nations and their greatest cities—some once uninhabited—events that have already happened in ages before and in our own memory, both by land and sea. Since all his predictions so far have been fulfilled, one can easily infer the rest will also be completed in due time. 6 Balak, furious that the Israelites were blessed instead of cursed, sent Balaam away without giving him any honor. But as Balaam was about to journey home across the Euphrates, he summoned Balak and the Midianite princes and spoke to them: “Balak and all you Midianites present, I will do you a service despite God’s will. True, you cannot utterly destroy the Hebrew nation—by war, plague, or crop failure—and they cannot be entirely ruined by any accident, for God Himself protects them from total destruction. Yet lesser misfortunes, though brief, may still come upon them, so that they appear temporarily brought down, only to rise again to the terror of those who inflicted these injuries. Therefore, if you hope to prevail against them for even a short while, follow my advice: select your most attractive daughters, those whose beauty can draw in and captivate any who see them, and dress them in their finest. Place them near the Israelite camp, permitting them to indulge the Hebrew young men who seek their company. Once these men are in love with your women, let the women distance themselves, and if the men beg them to remain, let the women insist they give up their own laws and worship of the God who established them, and turn to worship the gods of the Midianites and Moabites. In this way, God will be angry with them.” Having offered this counsel, Balaam departed. 7 The Midianites followed Balaam’s advice, sending their daughters to entice the Hebrew young men with their beauty. The men approached and pleaded for the company of these women, who seemed happy to oblige and linger among them. As soon as the men grew deeply attached, the women feigned a desire to leave, prompting the lovestruck men to beg them to stay and become their wives, promising them every privilege and swearing oaths before God Himself that they would make them mistresses of all they had. Once they saw the men were utterly in their power, the Midianite women said: 8 “Illustrious men, we have homes of our own, abundant goods, and the fond affection of our families back in our own land. It was not out of need that we came to speak with you or agreed to your invitation, nor to profit from making a living off our bodies, but because we considered you courageous and worthy, and so we were glad to accept your invitation and treat you with due hospitality. Now, since you insist you love us and appear distressed at the thought of our leaving, we are not averse to your request. However, we are concerned that you may soon tire of us, abuse us, and send us back in disgrace to our parents. That is what we fear and try to guard against.” 9 The young men, so captivated, assured them of anything they desired and would grant it without objection, so intense was their passion. “If this is truly your intention,” replied the women, “you must conform to our ways, for your customs, laws, foods, and drinks are unlike any others. If you truly want us for wives, then worship our gods; for that alone can prove the sincerity of your love. Does anyone have grounds to complain that you, now in our country, would worship our land’s rightful gods—gods shared by all—rather than stubbornly cling to your own that belong only to you? If you cannot bear that, perhaps you had better find yourselves another world entirely, to follow your own laws alone.” Thus these men, seduced by their deep desires, found the women’s argument convincing. They abandoned their own laws, assuming there must be many gods, and determined to sacrifice to them according to the local customs. They delighted in unfamiliar foods and yielded to every practice the women demanded, contrary to their own laws, so much so that it spread through the whole army of young men and caused a sedition far worse than earlier ones. Soon the very foundations of their institutions were in peril. Indeed, those of high standing, men honored for their fathers’ virtues, were also corrupted alongside the others. 10 Even Zimri, the leader of the tribe of Simeon, took Cozbi, a Midianite woman and daughter of Sur, a man of authority in that land. Urged on by his wife to abandon Moses’ laws and embrace her practices, he complied, even sacrificing in ways foreign to his people, and taking a foreigner as his wife. Moses grew frightened that this defiance might worsen. Calling the people to assemble, he avoided naming anyone directly, not wishing to drive the culprits to despair. Instead, he said: “It is unworthy of you or your ancestors to put pleasure before God and following His will. You should turn back while there is time to do so; remember that true bravery is resisting destructive impulses and not merely violating the law. Is it right that after living so austerely in the wilderness, you behave recklessly now, while enjoying prosperity? Do not throw away the discipline you gained in hardship, now that you have plenty.” By saying this, he tried to stir repentance among the young men. 11 But Zimri stood up after Moses and said, “Indeed, Moses, you are free to observe these laws you love, to which you have grown accustomed by long practice. Otherwise, you would have been punished more than once by now and realized the Hebrews do not submit so easily. But you will not have me as one of your disciples in this tyrannical system, for all you do under pretense of law and God is force us into servitude, all to strengthen your own authority. You deny us the joys of life—our free will—in the name of religion. That is worse than the Egyptians themselves! They only forced labor upon us, but you claim the right to punish anyone who pursues what he finds pleasing. If you must blame anyone, blame yourself, for trying to end our freedoms and make your single opinion outweigh those of all others. I won’t deny my own actions, for I’m a free man. Yes, I have married a foreign woman, as you rightly say. I sacrifice to gods you consider false, because I believe seeking truth means inquiring broadly, not submitting to the dictates of one man. And I will not let someone else’s authority overrule my own decisions!” 12 Once Zimri finished, revealing his wrongdoing and that of some others, the people stayed silent—afraid and also seeing that Moses chose not to challenge him further. Moses did not want more to imitate his brazen words and cause further upheaval. Thus, the congregation was dismissed. Yet greater harm was prevented by Zimri’s swift death, in this way: Phineas, in every way more virtuous than his peers, and notable for his illustrious lineage (he was the son of Eleazar the High Priest, grandson of Moses’s brother), was deeply troubled by Zimri’s acts. He determined to punish him promptly, before tolerating such villainy made it grow, and to stop others from following his lead. So, being courageous in both mind and body—always resolved not to give up until he gained complete victory—Phineas entered Zimri’s tent and killed him with a spear, and also struck down Cozbi. Encouraged by Phineas’s boldness, other young men of virtue did likewise, killing those they found guilty of Zimri’s crime. A plague also took the lives of many who participated, or who, instead of preventing such actions, encouraged them. Thus, those who shared in their wickedness died, and altogether, no fewer than fourteen thousand in the army perished that day. 13 This was why Moses was spurred to send an army to destroy the Midianites, about which we will speak shortly, after recounting a previously omitted detail. It is right we do not fail to praise our Lawgiver’s actions in this situation, for although Balaam—who the Midianites summoned to curse the Hebrews, and who, when prevented by divine providence from doing so, still advised their enemies how to tempt the Hebrews—came close to corrupting the entire multitude by his guile, Moses nonetheless honored Balaam by recording his prophecies. Though Moses could have claimed these prophecies himself—no one was there to contradict him—he instead gave full credit, faithfully preserving Balaam’s predictions in writing. Let each person judge these matters as they see fit.

1 Now Moses sent an army against the land of Midian for the reasons stated above, totaling twelve thousand men, taking an equal number from each tribe, and appointing Phineas their commander. Phineas, as noted earlier, defended the Hebrews’ laws by punishing Zimri. The Midianites, forewarned that the Hebrews were advancing, fortified the entrances to their country and waited. When the battle was joined, an enormous number of Midianites were killed—far too many to count. All their five kings, Evi, Zur, Reba, Hur, and Rekem, also fell, Rekem having shared his name with the chief city of Arabia, called Arecem by the natives and Petra by the Greeks. The enemy defeated, the Hebrews plundered their land, killed all the men but spared the virgins, per Moses’s instructions to Phineas, and returned unscathed with abundant spoils: fifty-two thousand cattle, seventy-five thousand six hundred sheep, sixty thousand donkeys, plus a huge sum of gold and silver furnishings, for the Midianites were very wealthy and indulgent. Also, about thirty-two thousand virgins were taken captive. Moses divided the spoils and set aside one-fiftieth each for Eleazar and the Priests, and for the Levites, distributing the remainder among the people. Afterward, they lived prosperously with all this abundance and faced no misfortune to hinder their happiness. 2 By this time Moses was grown old, so he appointed Joshua his successor, to receive divine counsel as a prophet and to lead the army when necessary. This was done by God’s command, entrusting him with public affairs. Joshua had already been thoroughly educated by Moses in all divine laws and matters pertaining to God. 3 Then the tribes of Gad and Reuben and half the tribe of Manasseh, who owned large herds of livestock and prospered in many ways, gathered and asked Moses to assign them the land of the Amorites—gained through war—for their share, as it was excellent for raising cattle. Moses suspected cowardice, thinking they simply wanted to avoid the battles still to come in Canaan, so he called them out for trying to shirk the work while the rest pursued the promise. But when they explained they wished only to settle their possessions safely so they could freely fight, Moses was satisfied. Summoning Eleazar the High Priest, Joshua, and the tribal leaders, he granted them the Amorite land on condition they would join in any future war until all was accomplished. The tribes then fortified cities for their families, leaving behind those who would be an encumbrance in battle. 4 Moses also now built ten of the forty-eight cities designated for the Levites. Three of these served as refuges for those who had unintentionally killed someone, where they would remain in exile until the High Priest who served at the time of the incident died, after which the fugitive might return home. Meanwhile, if any of the dead man’s relatives found the fugitive outside that city, they could lawfully kill him, though no one else could. The three cities of refuge Moses now appointed were Bezer by Arabia, Ramoth in Gilead, and Golan in Bashan. Another three such cities would be established among the Levite cities after they had taken possession of Canaan. 5 The leading men of the tribe of Manasseh at that time brought a case to Moses involving an esteemed man named Zelophehad, who had died leaving no sons, only daughters. They asked whether these daughters could inherit. Moses ruled that they could, if they married within their own tribe. But if they wed outside, they would lose the father’s inheritance to another tribe. Thus Moses decreed that everyone’s inheritance must remain within that tribe.

1 When forty full years had passed minus thirty days, Moses assembled the people near the Jordan at a place now called Abila, full of palm trees. When they gathered, he addressed them: 2 “Fellow Israelites and companions in this long, arduous journey, now that God’s will and my one hundred and twenty years on earth call me from this life, and since God forbids me to accompany you further beyond the Jordan, I still wish to ensure your happiness and leave a memorial of myself in your future peace and prosperity. Come, let me instruct you in the only path to lasting well-being for you and your descendants, so that after I am gone, you will still enjoy blessings. I do not say this without proof; you have seen my many efforts for your protection and know that a dying man speaks candidly. Children of Israel, there is only one true source of happiness for all: God’s favor. He alone can bestow good things on the worthy or deprive those who displease Him. If you conform to His will and live by the laws He revealed to me (and which I have given to you), you will be respected and blessed among all, subject to no adversity, preserving and enjoying every good thing. Honor and obey those God has set over you, never preferring any human edict to the laws I have delivered. If you do so, you will be braver than all others in war and will not yield to any enemy, for God will support you. Virtue is your greatest reward and the foundation of all other rewards. It will guide you to lead righteous lives, outshining foreigners and earning glory among descendants. These blessings rest upon your observance of the laws I have, by divine revelation, decreed. Meditate on the wisdom they contain. I go now to my ancestors, yet I trust God, who has so graciously cared for you and enabled all I have done in guiding you, will remain with you if you choose to keep pleasing Him. Listen, therefore, to Eleazar your High Priest, to Joshua, and to the council of your tribal leaders, for they will offer you the best advice. Submit to them willingly, remembering that only those who know how to obey are fit to govern. Avoid the error you sometimes showed me in the wilderness—attacking your benefactor in anger. Time and again, I faced danger from you more than from our enemies. These words I now speak are not to reproach you but to guide you, so you may remain secure in the days ahead, for God punishes the ungrateful. Do not, once you enjoy the prosperity of Canaan, become so arrogant that you despise virtue, for then God will withdraw His favor, and you will be overtaken by war, lose your land, and be scattered as exiles throughout the world, enslaved by merciless masters. Then, remembering your broken laws, you will repent too late. Destroy the inhabitants of Canaan completely so their practices cannot corrupt you. Overturn their altars and shrines, burn them, and do not spare their memory, so that you do not fall into transgression yourselves.” 3 Having spoken, Moses delivered these laws and their form of government in writing. The people wept at the realization that he would soon die, recalling the perils he had led them through and the care he always showed for their welfare. The children cried loudest, understanding even at their young age what a great man they were losing. Not even words could quell the grief that filled the entire multitude, so Moses comforted them, encouraging them to cling faithfully to their divinely inspired laws. Then he dismissed the gathering. 4 I shall now outline this constitution, consistent with Moses’s dignity and virtue, so readers may understand our early structure. All these statutes remain in writing just as he left them; we add nothing ornamental, only arranging them for clarity. Moses set them down as circumstances arose, according to the divine revelations he received. Let no one be offended that I have organized his scattered writings, for I do so only to convey them coherently. Part pertains to political governance, while another portion guides our daily conduct and interpersonal relations—a topic I plan, with God’s help, to address separately after completing this current account. 5 “When you take possession of Canaan and begin to build cities, do so in a way pleasing to God, and your good fortune will be secure. Establish only one city in the land of Canaan as the principal place, in the location God reveals, and there build the temple, with a single altar, made of stones gathered in their natural form. Whitewash them with mortar, and let the ascent be a gentle ramp of earth rather than steps. No other city may have altar or temple, for God is one, and the Hebrew nation is also one. 6 “Whoever blasphemes God will be stoned; his body will remain hanged for that day and then must be buried obscurely and with dishonor. 7 “Let everyone living far off from the soon-to-be-possessed land come up to the temple city three times a year, to thank God for blessings and to pray for those still needed. These feasts will create friendly ties among you through shared meals and worship. Meeting regularly ensures you are not strangers but one family under the same laws. Make your gratitude to God clear with offerings, so that your hearts do not become divided by distance. 8 “Beyond the gifts to the Priests and Levites, set aside an additional tenth of your produce to bring to the sacred city to use in sacrifices and feasting, recognizing that all fruits of the land, given by God, should also honor God in return. 9 “You must not offer sacrifices bought with a prostitute’s wages, for God does not accept what springs from such misuse of the body. You may not offer the price of breeding a dog, whether for hunting or shepherding. 10 “Do not insult the gods that other cities believe in, or steal offerings dedicated in their temples. 11 “No one may wear a garment woven from both wool and linen; such attire is for the Priests only. 12 “Every seventh year, at the Feast of Tabernacles, when the entire multitude comes to the holy city, let the High Priest stand on a high platform and read the laws to all—women, children, and servants included—so that these commands may be etched in their souls and not forgotten. Knowing God’s laws curbs wrongdoing and fosters reverence, reminding them of the blessings gained by obedience and the disasters arising from disobedience. The children should first learn God’s laws above all else, as the key to their future happiness. 13 “Remember God’s great mercy in delivering you from Egypt, proclaiming it each morning and evening. Gratitude is both just and a path to further kindness. Write on your doorposts the main wonders God did for you, and likewise bind them on your foreheads and arms,⁠a so that God’s power and care are never out of sight. 14 “Appoint seven judges of high character in each city, assisted by two Levite officers. Show these judges great respect; let no one speak rudely or defiantly in their presence, for reverence for earthly authorities leads to reverence for God. Judges should decide cases justly unless a litigant proves they took bribes or otherwise erred. The judge must place right above favor, wealth, or fear of the powerful; for to do otherwise is to scorn God, whose power is justice itself. If judges cannot reach a fair resolution, send the case to the holy city, where the High Priest, Prophet, and Council will hear and determine it. 15 “A single witness is not enough; there must be at least two or three trustworthy witnesses of honest reputation. Do not admit women as witnesses, due to their tendency toward boldness or levity, nor servants, because they may be swayed by fear or reward. If anyone is convicted of false testimony, impose the very penalty that the accused would have suffered. 16 “If a murder is committed and the killer is unknown, diligently investigate and offer rewards for information. If the culprit remains undiscovered, the leaders of the nearest cities shall convene, measure the distance from the crime scene, and the elders of that closest city shall bring a heifer to a lonely valley unfit for plowing or planting. They shall break the heifer’s neck, and the Priests, Levites, and that city’s council shall wash their hands over it, declaring their innocence and pleading with God that such a crime never again pollute their land. 17 “An aristocracy, a government of the best, is the ideal. May you never desire another form of rule but continue in obedience to the laws, for you need no sovereign but God. If you nevertheless seek a king, he must be of your own nation, faithful to justice and the virtues at all times, subject to the laws, honoring God’s commandments as the highest wisdom. He must attempt nothing without the High Priest and counsel of the senate, must not multiply wives, riches, or horses so that he becomes proud and stop obeying God’s laws. If he pursues such excesses, let him be restrained so his power does not imperil you. 18 “It is forbidden to move boundary markers—either your own or those of friendly neighbors—for these are, so to speak, sacred. Tampering with boundaries leads to strife and conflict, for those who violate them are ready for greater lawlessness. Do not shift these lines, which God set out for all time. 19 “If you plant new trees whose fruit appears before the fourth year, do not bring firstfruits from it to God, nor use it yourself, for that fruit is premature. All produce from the fourth year belongs to the temple, used alongside your tithes in festival meals shared with friends, orphans, and widows. From the fifth year onward, it is yours to use freely. 20 “Do not sow your vineyards with other seeds, for the land will nourish the vines enough without plowing them over. Do not yoke together animals of different kinds for plowing; it is not right to make them share unequal labor. Keep seeds pure, not mixing two or three sorts in one field, and do not allow animals of different species to mate. When small corruptions take root in minor things, they grow into greater offenses, so the law is mindful even of these details. 21 “At harvest, do not glean so meticulously that you take every sheaf; leave some for the needy. Likewise, leave smaller grape clusters and stray olives in the trees for the poor. God will ensure the land produces more when you show kindness, for you are not selfishly hoarding but providing for those who lack. Do not muzzle the ox that treads the grain; it is unjust to deny a creature that helps produce food its share. Do not forbid travelers or strangers, Israelite or not, to fill themselves with your produce at harvest; let them eat freely, though not carry any away. This teaches us not to envy another’s enjoyment of the good things God bestows. If some are too timid to take, invite them, especially if they are Israelites, since you are kin, and it is God’s will that you share your prosperity.⁠b If anyone defies this law, let him be beaten with no more than forty lashes by the public executor, as punishment for greed unworthy of a free people. Remember, you once suffered in Egypt’s hardships and in the desert, and now, in gratitude for your blessings, you should gladly share with those in distress. 22 “Besides the two tithes paid yearly—one for the Levites and one for sacred festivals—you must every third year bring a third tithe for those in need, including widows and orphans. As for the earliest ripened produce, bring it first to the temple to thank God for giving you a good and spacious land, and offer the required sacrifices. Then give firstfruits to the priests. When you have done this, bringing the tithes and giving firstfruits for Levites and festivals, stand before the holy house and thank God for all He has provided, testifying that you have done everything in accordance with Moses’s law. Pray that He will remain merciful both to you and to all the Hebrews, continuing and increasing the good things He has bestowed. 23 “Hebrew men should marry at a proper age, taking free, well-born virgins. Let no man corrupt a married woman and take her from her husband, bringing him grief, nor marry a slave if he is free. Such discipline of one’s affections befits dignity and honor. No one should marry a prostitute, for God will not accept an offering gained by degrading the body. Children of honest unions will be of worthy character. If a man has betrothed a woman, believing her a virgin, but finds otherwise, he may accuse her. Her father or brother or nearest kin shall defend her. If she is found innocent, she remains his wife, and he may not divorce her except for the gravest reasons. But if he maliciously accuses her without cause, he shall receive forty lashes less one and pay her father fifty shekels. If the charge is proven true that she was corrupted while betrothed, and she is of common birth, let her be stoned, as she did not remain pure until lawful marriage. If she is a priest’s daughter, let her be burned. If any man has two wives, loving one more, and the less-loved wife bears his elder son, while the favored wife bears a younger, he cannot give the double portion of inheritance to the younger son, for that belongs to the firstborn. One who violates an engaged woman with her consent shall die, both he and she, for willingly choosing an impure act over lawful marriage. If he forces a woman where no one can rescue her, only he shall be put to death. If a man has intimate relations with a virgin not yet betrothed, he shall marry her. If her father refuses, he must pay fifty shekels as compensation for the dishonor. If anyone wishes to divorce his wife for any reason, let him put in writing that he will never again treat her as his wife, so she may lawfully marry another. If, after this, the second husband dies or also dismisses her, the first husband may not marry her again. If a man dies childless, let his brother marry the widow and give his deceased brother heirs bearing his name. If he is unwilling, the woman shall protest before the council that her husband’s brother deprives the dead of descendants. If, after he is questioned, he persists, she shall remove his sandal and spit in his face, saying he deserves such humiliation for denying his family’s continuity. Then she is free to marry whom she pleases. If in war a man takes a captive woman, either virgin or married, he must not sleep with her until she shaves her head, puts on mourning clothes, and laments her parents for a full month. Then, having given her time to grieve, he may marry her. If afterward he no longer wishes to keep her, he must let her go free as a freewoman. 24 “Children who dishonor and abuse their parents—even by looking down on them—should first be admonished privately by their parents. They may say, ‘We did not come together for pleasure or gain, but so that we might have you to care for us in old age. From the moment you were born we gladly raised you, thanked God for you, and spared nothing for your upbringing. Do not persist in these outrages. God will be angry with those who mistreat their parents, for He Himself is Father of all mankind and is insulted when parents are disrespected. The law punishes such ingratitude severely. May you never face that punishment!’ If the children relent, that is enough, for the lawgiver’s desire is to see no one put to death. But if this counsel fails and the child’s insolence continues, then the law has no mercy. The parents must bring the child outside the city so that all may see, and stone him. There the body shall lie for a day and be buried at night in disgrace. All who suffer capital punishment are buried this way, as are enemies who fall in battle, so no corpse remains unburied longer than justice requires. 25 “Do not lend money to any Hebrew at interest, be it of silver or food or drink. To profit from a kinsman’s hardship is cruel; instead, let your kindness be your true reward, and trust that God, who sees your generosity, will repay you. 26 “When anyone borrows silver or other goods, let the borrower return them in good faith once God has restored blessings. If the borrower withholds repayment, let the creditor not forcibly seize a pledge before judgment, but require the borrower to give one willingly. If the borrower is rich, the creditor may keep it until he is repaid; if poor, return the pledge before sunset, especially if it is a garment for warmth. God is compassionate to the poor. You must not accept tools essential for a person’s livelihood as pledges—for example, a millstone—so that you do not rob a man of his ability to feed himself or his family. 27 “If anyone is discovered breaking in to steal, and is killed during the theft, the defender is not guilty. A thief of property pays back double, except for an ox, for which the penalty is fivefold. If he cannot pay, he shall serve his creditor as a slave. If one’s ox is known to be violent and kills a person, the ox must be stoned and not eaten, but if the owner knew of its nature and did not secure it, he too shall be put to death. However, if it kills a servant, the owner pays thirty shekels to the servant’s master, and the ox is stoned. If two oxen fight so that one kills the other, both must be sold and the price divided between the owners. 28 “When someone digs a well, he must cover it with boards so that no beast falls in and dies; otherwise, if someone’s animal falls in, the digger must pay its full worth. Let there also be a parapet around every roof, to prevent anyone from tumbling off. 29 “If one receives something for safekeeping, let it be guarded as sacred. Do not exploit the owner’s trust, even if you think you cannot be caught, for God sees all, and conscience should guide your actions. If it is lost through no fault of your own, stand before the seven judges, swear you gained nothing from it, and you will be cleared of blame. But if it emerges that you used any part of it, then you must repay all. This applies also to any who fail to pay laborers their due wages. Do not cheat a poor man of his pay, for God arranged that as his inheritance in place of land. Let wages be paid daily, for God does not wish to see the laborer’s rightful living withheld. 30 “Children shall not bear guilt for their parents’ sins, nor parents for their children’s, but each shall stand or fall by their own conduct. Nonetheless, if a child of wicked parents is virtuous, grant them respect for choosing righteousness despite their parentage, rather than condemning them for their lineage. 31 “Have nothing to do with self-made eunuchs. Banish anyone who emasculates himself, effectively committing harm to future generations, as if murdering his own children yet unborn. By effeminate thinking, they have done violence to their own bodies. Likewise, do not tolerate unnatural disfigurements. Nor is it lawful to geld any man or animal. 32 “These are the peaceful laws for your government. May God keep them safe from any disturbance, and may no circumstances force changes. Nevertheless, knowing humankind may face troubles unintentionally or deliberately, here are further laws for when you must wage war. May you be industrious, keep your souls steadfast in virtue, and live in freedom from conflict. But if foreigners do attack or some internal strife arises, you will have these rules to guide you, prepared beforehand rather than found in haste. 33 “When you do go to war, first send envoys and heralds to your enemies; it is just to use words before weapons. Inform them, though you have many warriors and horses and enjoy God’s merciful guidance, you would prefer to avoid bloodshed and do them no harm. If they heed you, maintain peace. If, relying on their own might, they refuse, then go into battle, God as your supreme Commander, and choose as your general under Him the bravest among you—too many commanders can hinder swift action. Muster only the strongest men, dismissing the fearful for fear that they might flee in action and give advantage to the enemy. Also excuse those who have recently built a house, planted a vineyard, or betrothed or married a wife, so their hearts do not cling to such concerns and cause cowardice on the battlefield. 34 “When you pitch camp, do nothing cruel. If you besiege a city and need wood for siege engines, do not cut down fruit trees. They did you no harm and provide nourishment, so spare them. If you defeat your enemies, kill those who fought you but spare the others so they pay you tribute—except for the Canaanites, whom you must destroy completely. 35 “During warfare, ensure no woman wears men’s clothing nor any man a woman’s garment. 36 “Such is the political order Moses left us. He had already recorded laws, in the fortieth year, which I will detail in another work. After convening the people daily, he gave them blessings for obedience and curses for transgressors of his laws, then recited a poem in hexameter, which he wrote in a holy book. It foretold the future, all of which has occurred or continues even now, so that, from its complete accuracy thus far, one may expect the rest will happen likewise. Moses placed these books, including this prophetic song, in the custody of the Priests, along with the ark containing the Ten Commandments on two tablets. He entrusted them also with the tabernacle. He reminded them, when settled in the land, never to forget the Amalekites’ hostility but to punish them for it. Likewise, he ordered them to destroy the Canaanites fully, raise an altar on a mountain facing the sunrise, near the city of Shechem, between Mount Gerizim on the right and Mount Ebal on the left, stationing half the tribes on each mountain, with the Levites and priests. First, those on Gerizim should pray blessings on all who follow God and His laws, and those on Ebal should affirm these blessings. Next, they should pronounce curses on anyone who violates these laws, and again the others affirm them, thus confirming it all by call and response. Moses wrote their blessings and curses so they might be remembered and never lapse through time, inscribing them on each side of the altar, where the people offered sacrifices and burnt offerings. Afterward, it was never used again for offering. These then are Moses’s laws, still observed by the Hebrews to this day. 37 “On the following day, Moses called together all the people—women, children, and even servants—that they might swear to uphold these laws, refusing any attempt by kinsmen or any city to undermine their constitution. If anyone plotted to overthrow it, they must all avenge the wrongdoing and tear down the offenders’ city to its foundations. If they were unable to prevail, they must at least show that they opposed such rebellion. All the people willingly vowed to do this. 38 “Moses taught them as well how to make their sacrifices acceptable to God and how to go to war consulting the stones, as previously described. Joshua also prophesied in Moses’s presence. Moses then reminded them of everything he had done for them—both in war and peace—providing them with excellent laws and a fair government. He warned them, as God had shown him, that if they ever lapsed in worshipping God, they would be beset by armies, their cities overthrown, their temple burned, and they themselves sold into slavery to merciless captors. Then they would repent of such sins, but too late. Yet he added that the God who made their nation would restore their cities and temple, and although they would lose these blessings more than once, God would still bring them back in time. 39 Finally, Moses urged Joshua to be strong in leading the people into Canaan, assuring him God would always aid him in his task. He blessed the entire multitude, adding: “I am departing now to my ancestors, and I thank God, while I still live among you, for rescuing us from hardship and giving us prosperity. It was He who guided and completed all we achieved, using me only as His agent, a servant to His will. I commend you to that same divine power, who will watch over you if you stay true to virtue. May you remain mindful of Him and keep the excellent laws He has given you!” 40 With these words, Moses recounted what would happen to each tribe in times to come, blessing them all. The people wept, young and old alike, the elders recalling what a protector he had been, the youth regretting they had not benefited from him longer. As Moses went to the place of his departure, many followed him in tears. He gestured for them to remain and not worsen his leaving by their sorrow, so they at last obeyed, though still weeping. Only the senate, Eleazar the High Priest, and Joshua went on with him, until they reached the mountain named Abarim, high above Jericho, commanding a view of nearly all of Canaan. There Moses said farewell to Eleazar and Joshua, and while he was still speaking with them, a cloud covered him suddenly, and he disappeared in a valley.⁠c In his holy writings, Moses records that he died, so that no one would claim, due to his extraordinary virtue, that he was taken up by God. 41 Moses was one hundred and twenty years old, having ruled the people for the last forty minus one month. He died on the first day of the final month, the Macedonians’ Dystrus, which we call Adar. He surpassed every other person in wisdom, using it well in leading the people, and speaking gracefully before the crowds. His self-control was so complete he barely seemed to experience human passions at all, as though he knew them only by name, observing them in others rather than in himself. He excelled both as a great general and, even more, as a prophet who spoke with the voice of God. Therefore, the entire nation mourned him for thirty days. Never had grief so overwhelmed the Hebrews. Indeed, not only those who witnessed his deeds, but even those who merely read the laws he left behind, could sense his extraordinary virtue and yearned for him. This concludes the account of Moses’s death.