Antiquities of the Jews, Book 3

1 When the Hebrews had obtained such a wonderful deliverance, the country caused them great hardship, for it was entirely a desert, and without any food for them, and also had exceedingly little water, so that it was not enough for the men or even to sustain any of the cattle; for it was parched up, and had no moisture that might nourish the plants. So they were forced to travel over this country, since they had no other country to travel through. They had indeed carried water along with them from the land over which they had traveled before, as their guide had instructed them; but when that was spent they had to draw water out of wells, with difficulty, because of the hardness of the soil. Moreover, what water they found was bitter, and not fit for drinking, and this in small quantities also. And as they thus traveled, they came late in the evening to a place called Marah: which had that name from the poor quality of its water; for Mar denotes bitterness. They arrived there suffering, both from their exhausting journey, and from their lack of food; for it entirely failed them at that time. There was a well here, which made them choose to stay in the place: which, although it was not sufficient to satisfy such a large army, still offered them some comfort, as wells in such desert places did: for they heard from those who had been to search, that there was nothing to be found, if they traveled on farther. Yet this water was bitter, and not fit for people to drink: and it was intolerable even to the cattle themselves. 2 Moses saw how discouraged the people were, and that there was no denying the reason for it: for the people were not like a full army of men, who might face their distress with manly courage. The multitude of the children and of the women also, being of too weak capacities to be persuaded by reason, blunted the courage of the men themselves. Moses therefore was in great difficulties, and made everybody’s calamity his own. For they all ran to him, and begged him: the women begged for their infants, and the men for the women, that he would not overlook them, but would find some way or other for their deliverance. He therefore turned to prayer to God, that he would change the water from its present badness, and make it fit for drinking. And when God had granted him that favor, he took the top of a stick that lay down at his feet, and divided it in the middle, and made the cut lengthwise. He then let it down into the well, and persuaded the Hebrews that God had listened to his prayers, and had promised to make the water as they wanted it, if they obeyed his instructions; and this not carelessly or negligently. And when they asked what they were to do in order to have the water changed for the better, he told the strongest men among them who stood there to draw up water, and told them that when the greatest part was drawn up, the remainder would be fit to drink. So they labored at it till the water was so agitated and purged as to be fit to drink. 3 And now moving on from there, they came to Elim: which looked promising from a distance: for there was a grove of palm-trees: but when they came near it, it appeared to be a bad place. For the palm-trees were no more than seventy; and they were stunted, and creeping trees, because of the lack of water: for the surrounding country was all parched; and no moisture sufficient to water them, and help them thrive and become useful, reached them from the springs; of which there were twelve: they were rather a few moist places, than springs: which not breaking out of the ground, nor running over, could not sufficiently water the trees. And when they dug into the sand, they met with no water: and if they took a few drops of it into their hands, they found it to be useless, on account of its mud. The trees also were too weak to bear fruit, for lack of being sufficiently cherished and enlivened by the water. So they laid the blame on their guide, and made heavy complaints against him; and said that this miserable state, and the experience they had of adversity, were owing to him: for they had then journeyed an entire thirty days, and had spent all the provisions they had brought with them: and, meeting with no relief, they were in a very despondent condition. And by fixing their attention upon nothing but their present misfortunes, they were hindered from remembering what deliverances they had received from God, and those by the virtue and wisdom of Moses also; so they were very angry at their guide, and were eager in their attempt to stone him, as the direct cause of their present miseries. 4 But as for Moses himself, while the multitude were irritated and bitterly set against him, he cheerfully relied upon God, and upon the consciousness of the care he had taken of his own people: and he came into the midst of them, even while they clamored against him, and had stones in their hands to kill him. Now he was pleasant in appearance, and very able to persuade the people by his speeches; accordingly he began to calm their anger: and exhorted them not to dwell on their present hardships, for fear that they might in this way allow the benefits that had formerly been bestowed on them to slip out of their memories: and he urged them not to cast, on account of their present uneasiness, those great and wonderful favors and gifts, which they had obtained from God, out of their minds; but to expect deliverance out of these present troubles, which they could not free themselves from: and this by means of that divine providence which watched over them. Since it is likely that God tests their virtue, and exercises their patience by these adversities, that it may appear what fortitude they have, and what memory they retain of his former wonderful works in their favor, and whether they will not think of them when they face their present troubles. He told them it appeared they were not really good people, either in patience, or in remembering what had been successfully done for them, sometimes by scorning God and his commands, when by those commands they left the land of Egypt; and sometimes by behaving badly toward him who was the servant of God: and this when he had never deceived them, either in what he said, or in what he had ordered them to do by God’s command. He also reminded them of all that had passed: how the Egyptians were destroyed when they attempted to detain them, contrary to the command of God: and in what way the very same river was bloody to the others, and not fit for drinking, yet was fit for drinking and sweet to them: and how they went a new road through the sea, which fled a long way from them; by which very means they themselves were preserved, but saw their enemies destroyed: and that when they were lacking weapons, God gave them plenty of them: and so he recounted all the particular instances; how when they were, in appearance, just going to be destroyed, God had saved them in a surprising way: that he still had the same power; and that they ought not even now to despair of his providence over them. Accordingly, he exhorted them to remain calm; and to consider that help would not come too late, though it might not come immediately, if it reaches them before they suffer any great misfortune; that they ought to reason in this way, that God delays assisting them not because he has no regard for them, but because he will first test their fortitude, and the pleasure they take in their freedom; that he may learn whether they have souls great enough to bear lack of food, and scarcity of water on its account, or whether they instead prefer to be slaves, as cattle are slaves to those who own them and feed them generously, but only in order to make them more useful in their service. As for himself, he was less concerned about his own survival: for if he should die unjustly, he would not reckon it any affliction; but that he was concerned for them, for fear that, by casting stones at him, they might be thought to condemn God himself. 5 In this way Moses pacified the people, and restrained them from stoning him, and brought them to repent of what they were going to do. And because he thought their desperate need made their passion less unjustifiable, he believed he ought to turn to God in prayer and appeal: and climbing to a high place, he asked God for help for the people, and some way of deliverance from the need they were in; because their hope of salvation lay in him alone. And he asked God to forgive what necessity had forced the people to do, since this was human nature, hard to please, and quick to complain under hardship. Accordingly, God promised he would take care of them, and provide the help they wanted. Now when Moses had heard this from God, he came down to the multitude. But as soon as they saw him joyful at the promises he had received from God, they changed their sad expressions into gladness. So he placed himself in the midst of them, and told them he came to bring them God’s deliverance from their present troubles. Accordingly, a vast number of quails came a little afterward, which is a bird more plentiful in this Arabian Gulf than anywhere else, flying over the sea, and hovering over them, until, wearied with their laborious flight, and indeed, as usual, flying very near to the earth, they fell down upon the Hebrews, who caught them and satisfied their hunger with them, and supposed that this was the method by which God meant to supply them with food. At this, Moses gave thanks to God for offering them his assistance so suddenly, and sooner than he had promised them. 6 But immediately after this first supply of food, he sent them a second. For as Moses was lifting up his hands in prayer, a dew fell down; and Moses, when he found it sticking to his hands, supposed this was also provided as food from God for them. He tasted it; and perceiving that the people did not know what it was, and thought it snowed, and that it was what usually fell at that time of the year, he informed them that this dew did not fall from heaven in the manner they imagined, but came for their preservation and sustenance. So he tasted it, and gave them some of it, that they might be satisfied about what he told them. They also imitated their guide, and were pleased with the food; for it was like honey in sweetness and pleasant taste, but in its body like bdellium, one of the sweet spices, and in size equal to coriander seed. And they were very eager in gathering it. But they were instructed to gather equal amounts, the measure of a homer for everyone, every day, because this food should not come in too small a quantity, for fear that the weaker might not be able to get their share, because the stronger people might take more than their share. However, these strong men, when they had gathered more than the measure appointed for them, had no more than others; they only tired themselves more in gathering it. For they found no more than a homer each; and they gained no advantage from the excess, as it soon spoiled, both by worms breeding in it and by its bitterness. This food was so divine and wonderful! It also supplied the lack of other sorts of food to those who fed on it. Even now in all that place this manna comes down in rain, according to what Moses then obtained of God, so it might be sent for the people’s sustenance. Now the Hebrews call this food manna. For the particle man in our language is the asking of a question, what is this? So the Hebrews were very joyful at what was sent them from heaven. Now they ate this food for forty years:1 or as long as they were in the wilderness. 7 As soon as they moved on from there, they came to Rephidim, suffering from extreme thirst; and while on previous days they had come upon a few small fountains, they now found the land entirely without water, so they were in a dire situation. And so they again turned their anger against Moses. But he at first avoided the fury of the multitude, and then turned to prayer to God, begging him that as he had given them food when they were in the greatest need of it, so he would give them drink, since the favor of giving them food was of no value to them while they had nothing to drink. And God did not delay long in giving it; he promised Moses that he would provide them a fountain and plenty of water, from a place they did not expect any. So he commanded him to strike the rock they saw lying there with his rod, and receive plenty of what they needed from it. For he had taken care that drink should come to them without any labor or effort. When Moses had received this command from God, he came to the people, who waited for him and looked upon him. For they saw already that he was coming swiftly down from his high place. As soon as he arrived, he told them that God would deliver them from their present distress, and had granted them an unexpected favor, and explained that a river would run for their sakes out of the rock. But they were amazed at hearing that, supposing they would necessarily have to cut the rock in pieces, now that they were distressed by thirst and their journey. While Moses, by only striking the rock with his rod, opened a passage, and water burst out of it, in great abundance, and very clear. They were astonished at this wonderful effect, and, as it were, quenched their thirst by the very sight of it. So they drank this pleasant, this sweet water, and it seemed to be precisely what one would expect when God is the donor. They also marveled at how Moses was honored by God, and they offered sacrifices to God in gratitude for his providence toward them. Now that scripture kept in the temple informs us how God told Moses in advance that water would flow from the rock in this way.

1 The name of the Hebrews began already to be everywhere renowned, and rumors about them ran abroad. This made the inhabitants of those countries feel no small fear. Accordingly, they sent ambassadors to one another, urging each other to defend themselves, and to endeavor to destroy these men. Those who spurred the rest to do so were the people inhabiting Gobolitis and Petra. They were called Amalekites, and were the most warlike of the nations that lived in that region, and their kings exhorted one another and their neighbors to go to war against the Hebrews, telling them that an army of foreigners—people who had run away from slavery under the Egyptians—lay in wait to ruin them, and that in common prudence, and for their own safety, they should not ignore them, but crush them before they gain strength and prosperity, and perhaps attack them first in a hostile manner, assuming that our laxness in not attacking them sooner indicates a lack of concern. They further insisted that they ought to avenge themselves on these Hebrews for what had been done in the wilderness, saying it could not be so well done if the Hebrews managed to seize their cities and goods first, and that those who crush a power in its first rise are wiser than those who try to curb it only when it becomes formidable. For the latter appear only to resent others’ flourishing, while the former leave no room for their enemies to become troublesome. After sending such messages to the neighboring nations and among themselves, they resolved to engage the Hebrews in battle. 2 These preparations by the local peoples threw Moses into perplexity and trouble, for he had not expected such warlike measures. And when these nations were ready to fight, and the Hebrews were forced to try their fortunes in war, they felt great dismay and lacked every necessity, yet they were about to face men who were thoroughly prepared for conflict. Then Moses began to encourage them, urging them to be of good heart and to rely on God’s assistance, by which they had obtained their freedom, and to hope for victory over those who were preparing to attack them so as to deprive them of that freedom. He advised them to imagine their own army to be large, lacking neither weapons nor provisions nor any other support that might embolden men to fight undauntedly, and to consider that they actually possessed these advantages in divine assistance. Conversely, they should regard the enemy’s army as small, unarmed, and weak, lacking all the necessities that are lacking when it is God’s will that they be defeated. He reminded them how valuable God’s assistance was, something they had seen proven in many circumstances far more terrible than war (for that is only against men, whereas they had faced hunger and thirst, which in themselves are insuperable; as well as mountains, and a sea with no way of escape). Yet all of these hardships had been overcome by God’s generous kindness to them. Therefore, he exhorted them at this juncture to be courageous and to realize that their entire well-being depended on conquering their enemies now. 3 With these words Moses roused the people, who then called the tribal leaders and chief men together, both separately and jointly. He charged the young men to obey their elders, and the elders to heed their leader. Thus, the people’s spirits were raised and they were ready to try their fortune in battle, hoping finally to be rid of their adversities. Indeed, they asked Moses to lead them immediately against their enemies without delay, so there would be no reluctance to cool their current resolve. So Moses organized all who were fit for war into separate companies and set Joshua, the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, over them—he was a man of great courage, ready to bear hardships, had strong skills in both understanding and speech, and was deeply devout in his worship of God, effectively another Moses, a teacher of reverence toward God. Moses also appointed a small number of armed men to stay near the water and look after the children, the women, and the entire camp. The whole night they prepared for the battle, taking up such weapons as any had made ready, and waiting for orders from their leaders to rush forth as soon as Moses should command. Moses also stayed awake, instructing Joshua how to arrange his army. But when dawn came, Moses again called for Joshua, exhorting him to show himself in deeds the man his reputation promised, and by his exploits in this battle to earn glory in the eyes of those under him. He also gave specific instructions to the senior men of the Hebrews and encouraged the entire force as it stood under arms. After thus motivating them by word and example and arranging all necessary matters, he withdrew to a mountain and commended the army to God and Joshua’s care. 4 So the armies joined battle; and it became a close engagement, face to face, each side showing great eagerness and encouraging its own. Indeed, when Moses stretched out his hands toward heaven, the Hebrews had the upper hand against the Amalekites. But Moses could not hold out his arms extended forever (for whenever he let down his hands, his people were worsted), so his brother Aaron and Hur, Miriam’s husband, stood on either side of him and helped hold his arms up, so that his fatigue did not compromise their victory. And once they did this, the Hebrews overpowered the Amalekites by sheer force. They would all have perished, had not the approach of evening obliged the Hebrews to cease the slaughter. Thus, our ancestors won a very remarkable and timely victory: not only did they defeat those who fought against them, but they also struck terror into the surrounding nations and took splendid spoils—the hard-won fruits of this engagement. For when they took the enemy camp, they acquired abundant plunder both for the public and for their families—whereas earlier they had not enjoyed any abundance of even necessary provisions. This battle and its outcome thus paved the way for future successes, not just for the moment but for later generations as well. For they subjugated not only the bodies of their enemies but intimidated their minds, and from then on became formidable to all around them. Moreover, they gained vast quantities of riches; since a large amount of silver and gold had been left behind in the enemy’s camp, as well as bronze vessels for common household use. Many embroidered objects were there, both woven ones and those adorning armor and other items used in their homes and for furnishing their dwellings. They also took livestock and anything else that usually follows an army on the move. Accordingly, the Hebrews now had a high opinion of themselves and claimed great credit for their valor, committing themselves to continual training so that no challenge might prove insuperable. This was the outcome of this battle. 5 On the following day Moses stripped the killed enemies of their arms, gathered up the weapons of the fugitives, and bestowed rewards on those who had distinguished themselves in battle, giving great praise to their general Joshua, attested by the entire army for his notable deeds. Not one of the Hebrews was killed, whereas the adversary’s dead were too many to count. Moses offered sacrifices of thanksgiving to God and built an altar, which he named The Lord, the Conqueror. He also prophesied that the Amalekites would be utterly destroyed so that none of them would remain in the future, because they had opposed the Hebrews in the wilderness and taken arms against them in their time of distress. Afterward, he refreshed the army with a feast. This was their first battle against those who dared to confront them after their exodus from Egypt. When Moses had completed the festival for the victory, he allowed the Hebrews to rest a few days. Then he led them forward after the conflict, in battle array, for they now had numerous light-armed troops. Progressing gradually, they reached Mount Sinai three months after leaving Egypt—the very mountain where, as previously recounted, the vision of the burning bush and other astonishing appearances had taken place.

1 Now when Raguel, Moses’s father-in-law, learned of the prosperous state of his affairs, he gladly came to meet him. Moses took Zipporah his wife and his children and was delighted by Raguel’s arrival. After Moses offered sacrifice, he prepared a feast for the people near the bush he had formerly seen, and each household partook of it. Aaron and his family led Raguel in singing hymns to God as the one who had been the author and provider of their deliverance and freedom. They also praised their guide, whose virtue had contributed so greatly to their success. Raguel, in turn, in his speech of thanks to Moses, gave high praise to the entire people, and could not help admiring Moses for his bravery and the compassion he had shown in rescuing his kinsfolk.

1 The next day, when Raguel saw Moses overwhelmed with responsibilities—since Moses was settling the disputes of all who came to him, with everyone thinking themselves justified only when he was the arbitrator, and even those who lost their cases were not much aggrieved, believing they were fairly defeated rather than suffering any bias—Raguel said nothing at first, not wishing to interfere with those seeking the benefit of their leader’s wisdom. But later, taking Moses aside, he advised him on how he ought to proceed, suggesting that he not personally handle every minor matter, but rather concern himself with the overarching welfare of the people. Raguel explained that others among the Hebrews would prove competent to judge smaller matters, but that no one but a Moses could watch over the safety of so many tens of thousands. “Do not,” he said, “neglect your own greatness or overlook the remarkable deeds you have done as God’s agent in saving your friends. Therefore, permit the judging of ordinary cases to be done by others, while you reserve yourself to attend to God alone and to devise ways of securing the people from their present difficulties. Use this plan I propose for earthly matters: review the army and appoint worthy rulers over tens of thousands, then over thousands, then divide them into five hundreds, hundreds, and fifties; install officers over each group who will keep them in order when you further reduce them to thirties, then twenties, and finally tens. Let each leader be named according to the number of those over whom they preside, but let these be individuals whom the entire multitude accepts as good and just. Let them resolve the disputes that arise among their groups, but if a more significant case comes up, let them bring it before higher authorities. If, however, a truly serious matter emerges that these cannot settle, let them bring it to you. Two advantages will result from this: the Hebrews will have justice done them, and you will be free to attend continually upon God, gaining his greater favor toward the people.” 2 Moses warmly welcomed Raguel’s counsel and acted upon it. He did not conceal the origin of this plan or claim credit himself either; rather, he informed the people who its true author was, naming Raguel in his writings as the inventor of that system of government, for he believed it virtuous to testify truthfully of worthy people even if it meant foregoing the fame he might otherwise have assumed for himself. This illustrates Moses’s upright spirit—a disposition about which more will be said elsewhere in these writings.

1 Moses then gathered the multitude together and told them he was going up to Mount Sinai to converse with God, in order to receive from him and bring back an oracle. He commanded them to camp near the mountain, choosing to stay as close as possible to God’s dwelling place. Having said this, he ascended Mount Sinai, which is the highest mountain in that country, both on account of its great altitude, making it hard for people to climb, and because of the steepness of its cliffs. Indeed, it is painful even to see from below, and in addition, a certain dread was associated with it from the tale that God inhabited it. Nevertheless, the Hebrews moved their camp, just as Moses directed, occupying the lower parts of the mountain, and their spirits were raised, anticipating that Moses would return from God with the blessings he had promised. They spent their time in feasting, yet kept themselves pure in other respects and avoided relations with their wives for three days, as Moses had earlier commanded, praying that God would kindly receive Moses’s approach and grant them by his oracle a means of living well. They wore more plentiful attire and clothed their wives and children more finely than usual. 2 Thus passed two days in celebration. On the third day, before sunrise, a cloud settled over the entire encampment of the Hebrews—a cloud the like of which none had ever seen—encircling the place where they had pitched their tents. All the rest of the air remained clear. Suddenly strong winds arose, bringing heavy showers of rain, which turned into a great tempest. There was such lightning, terrifying to those who saw it, and thunderclaps with bolts striking down, plainly announcing God’s presence, as Moses had petitioned. Each reader may form their own view of these phenomena, but I must describe this event as our sacred records state it. This sight, and the dreadful sounds echoing in their ears—so unlike what they were used to—filled the Hebrews with profound disturbance, and the rumor of God’s presence on the mountain heightened their alarm. They sorrowfully stayed in their tents, believing Moses to have perished by divine anger, and fearing the same fate for themselves. 3 Amid these apprehensions, Moses suddenly appeared, delighted and triumphantly exultant. At his coming, the people’s fears melted away, yielding to more hopeful expectations of what was coming. At the same time, the air cleared, and the earlier disturbances vanished with Moses’s appearance. He summoned the assembly and, once they were gathered, stood in a place where all could hear him, declaring: “God has kindly welcomed me as before, and has shown me a way for you to live and a framework of government for our society; indeed, he is here now among the camp. Therefore, out of regard for him, for what he has done, and for the things I now speak, do not take lightly these commands because I, a mere man, deliver them, or because you hear them in a human voice. Recognize instead the great importance of these matters, that you may perceive the magnitude of their Author, who chose to share them for our common good. For do not imagine that their Author is only Moses, son of Amram and Jochebed, but the very one who turned the Nile to blood for your sakes; who subdued the arrogance of the Egyptians by various plagues; who opened a passage through the sea for you; who arranged for bread from heaven when you were in dire need; who drew sweet water from a rock when you were parched; the one who caused Adam to share in the fruits of land and sea; who preserved Noah from the flood; who made our ancestor Abraham, once a wandering pilgrim, heir of Canaan; who brought forth Isaac from aged parents; who blessed Jacob with twelve virtuous sons; who raised Joseph to powerful lordship over the Egyptians. It is he who now gives you these instructions through me as his interpreter. And you should treasure them, embracing them more fervently than even your own children and wives. If you obey them, you will lead a happy life: you will have a fruitful land, calm seas, and the fruit of the womb born in perfect form; you will also be formidable to your enemies. I have been admitted into God’s presence and heard his unerring voice—so deep is his concern for your nation and its endurance.” 4 Having spoken thus, he brought the people—wives and children included—close to the mountain so they might hear God himself speaking the precepts they were to follow, so that the power of the words would not be diminished by a merely human voice. They all heard a voice from on high; not a single word escaped them, and Moses recorded the words on two tablets, five on each, inscribed by God’s own hand. 5 The first commandment teaches that there is only one God, and we are to worship him alone. The second forbids making the image of any living creature to worship it. The third tells us not to swear by God on a false matter. The fourth is that we must keep the seventh day free from all work. The fifth enjoins us to honor our parents. The sixth requires that we not commit murder. The seventh that we not commit adultery. The eighth that we not steal. The ninth that we not bear false witness. The tenth that we not entertain any desire for another’s possessions. 6 When the people had heard from God himself these commandments about which Moses had spoken, they rejoiced at the pronouncement and the assembly dispersed. On the following days, however, they came to his tent, asking him to bring more laws from God. Accordingly, he prescribed such laws, informing them how to act in all matters. I shall mention these laws in due course, reserving most for another work, where I will explain them fully. 7 With affairs in this state, Moses once again went up to Mount Sinai, as he had told them he would. He ascended in their sight and remained absent for forty days. The Hebrews, distressed at his lengthy absence, feared something terrible had happened to him, for nothing alarmed them so much as the thought that Moses was lost. Their opinions varied: some, largely ill-disposed toward him, suspected he had fallen prey to wild beasts; others believed he had gone away to be with God. The more prudent among them declined to accept either explanation with any conviction, feeling that men can indeed sometimes be destroyed by wild animals, yet Moses might also have gone away to God on account of his piety. Thus they waited in confusion, grieving bitterly as though they had lost their leader and protector, one whom they would never replace. No hope of a favorable outcome would console them. Nevertheless, they did not move the camp, because Moses had instructed them to remain there. 8 But when the forty days and nights had passed, Moses came back, having consumed nothing of earthly nourishment during his time away. The entire army rejoiced at his reappearance, and he declared to them how God cared for them and by what manner of living they would do well. He explained that in these days of his absence God had also told him to have a tabernacle constructed, into which he would descend when he came to them, so that they would no longer need to climb Mount Sinai, for God would dwell among them and be present when they prayed, and that the tabernacle must be built according to the measurements and structure shown to him, and that they should dedicate themselves wholeheartedly to completing it. Having said this, he showed them the two tablets engraved with the Ten Commandments, five on each tablet, the inscription made by God’s own hand.

1 Then the Israelites rejoiced at what they had seen and heard from their leader, and they were not lacking in diligence according to their ability. They brought silver, and gold, and brass, and the best sorts of wood, which would not decay; camel hair also, and sheepskins dyed blue, and some dyed scarlet. Some provided the flowers for purple dye, others for white; with wool dyed by the flowers mentioned. They also contributed fine linen, precious stones (which those using expensive ornaments set in gold), and a great deal of spices. From these materials Moses built the Tabernacle, which did not differ at all from a movable, traveling temple. And when these items were brought together so readily—everyone striving to support the project even beyond their means—he appointed overseers for the work, at God’s command (the very same individuals the people themselves would have chosen if they had been permitted to elect them). Their names are recorded in the sacred Books: Besaleel, son of Uri, from the tribe of Judah (grandson of Miriam, the sister of their leader), and Aholiab, son of Ahisamach, from the tribe of Dan. The people kept contributing to such an extent that Moses had to make a public announcement that what had been donated was already sufficient, according to the artisans’ report. Thus they proceeded to construct the Tabernacle. Moses also explained to them, in accordance with God’s instructions, its dimensions, how large it should be, and how many vessels it needed for the sacrifices. The women were keen to do their part regarding the priests’ garments and other items needed for both ornamentation and sacred service. 2 When all these items had been gathered—gold, silver, brass, and the woven materials—Moses, having already proclaimed a festival and invited everyone to bring sacrifices according to their ability, then set up the Tabernacle. After he measured the open courtyard to be fifty cubits wide and one hundred cubits long, he erected bronze pillars each five cubits in height, twenty pillars along each of the long sides and ten pillars across the width at the back. Each pillar had a ring, with capitals made of silver and bases of brass; these bases resembled the sharp ends of spears in brass, fixed into the ground. Ropes were passed through the rings and tied at their farther ends to brass pegs a cubit long, which were driven into the floor at each pillar to keep the Tabernacle steady against strong winds. A curtain of fine, soft linen was hung around all the pillars, loosely draped from their capitals, enclosing the whole area, giving the appearance of a wall. That was the arrangement on three sides of the enclosure. The fourth side, which measured fifty cubits across and formed the front, had a twenty-cubit opening for the entrance: two pillars on each side like open gates, made entirely of polished silver except for the bases, which were brass. On each side of this entrance stood three pillars fitted into concave bases that matched them, with a fine linen curtain draped around them. The gateway itself, twenty cubits wide and five cubits tall, had a curtain woven of purple, scarlet, blue, and fine linen, embroidered with many different designs but no images of living creatures. Inside these gates stood the bronze basin for purification, resting on a base of similar material, from which the Priests washed their hands and sprinkled their feet. This was the decorative structure of the enclosure around the courtyard of the Tabernacle, which was open to the sky. 3 As for the Tabernacle itself, Moses placed it in the center of that courtyard, with its front facing east so that the rising sun would first shine upon it. Once erected, its length was thirty cubits and its width twelve cubits. One wall faced south, the other north, with the back toward the west. Its height was required to be the same as its width, ten cubits. There were twenty wooden pillars along each side, cut in a rectangular shape, a cubit and a half wide but only four finger-breadths thick, overlaid on both surfaces (inside and out) with gold. Each pillar had two tenons fitted into silver bases, into which sockets received the tenons, locking them tightly. There were six pillars at the western wall. All these sockets and tenons fit together so snugly that the joints were invisible, giving the appearance of a single continuous wall, plated with gold on both sides. The opposite sides had an equal number of pillars, twenty each, measuring a total of thirty cubits in length. But at the rear, where the six pillars added up to only nine cubits, two more pillars (each of one cubit) were made for the corners and polished to match the others. Every pillar had gold rings attached outwardly, as though rooted in them, standing in a line around the structure. Gold-plated bars, each five cubits long, ran through the rings, binding the pillars; the end of one bar fit into the next like tenons joining together. At the back wall there was just one row of bars that reached all the pillars, the ends of which slotted into the bars on the longer sides, male to female, ensuring a firm grip throughout. This entire interlocking system kept the Tabernacle from shaking in the wind or from any other cause, preserving it in stable, continuous form. 4 Inside, Moses divided the length into three sections. Ten cubits from the rearmost area, he placed four pillars of the same craftsmanship and set on similar bases, each a short distance from the next. The space within these pillars was called the Most Holy Place; the rest of the interior, open for the Priests, was the Tabernacle. The measurements of the Tabernacle were arranged as a symbolic model of the cosmos. That third portion beyond the four pillars, which the Priests could not enter, symbolized Heaven as God’s domain; the remaining twenty-cubit area, like land and sea where people live, was allotted to the Priests. In front, at the entrance, seven golden pillars rose from bronze bases. Over the Tabernacle, Moses laid veils of fine linen, purple, blue, and scarlet, richly embroidered. The first veil, measuring ten cubits per side, was hung across the pillars that partitioned the temple, concealing the Most Holy Place within. This veil alone made that area invisible from outside. The whole structure was called the Holy Place, while the inner sanctuary (behind the four pillars) was called the Holy of Holies. That veil was highly ornate, embroidered with all kinds of floral patterns from the earth—everything decorative except images of living creatures. Another veil of the same size, design, and colors covered the five pillars at the entrance. Gold rings at each pillar’s corner held it from the top halfway down, leaving the other half as a space for the Priest to enter beneath. Above this was still another linen veil, of the same dimensions, designed to be pulled back or drawn shut using cords that attached to rings fitted into the fabric. Thus, on sacred days it might be opened to allow a view into the sanctuary, but on other days, especially when it snowed, it would be closed to protect the colored veil below it. From this practice, we derive our custom of placing a fine linen curtain over temple entrances. Beyond that, there were ten more curtains each four cubits wide and twenty-eight cubits long, joined with gold clasps so precisely that they appeared as one continuous curtain. These were laid over the top of the temple, covering the walls down to within about a cubit above the ground. Another set of curtains of the same width but one extra in number and somewhat longer—thirty cubits—was made of hair, woven with comparable skill. They hung loosely to the ground, forming a triangular front at the entrance (the eleventh curtain served that specific purpose). Even more coverings made of skins were placed above these layers, shielding them against heat and rain. Their color, seen from afar, was like that of the sky. The hair and skin curtains likewise extended downward, shielding the entrance from sun and rain. This was how the Tabernacle was built. 5 There was also a sacred ark made of naturally strong, incorruptible wood, which in our language is called Eron. Its dimensions were five spans in length and three spans each in width and height. It was fully covered with gold, inside and out, so the wood was not visible. A golden-hinged lid, perfectly fitted on all edges, covered it smoothly without any protrusions. Two golden rings went through each of the longer side-boards, straight through the wood, and gilt rods passed through these rings to carry the ark wherever necessary. It was never placed on a cart pulled by oxen but carried on the Priests’ shoulders. On this cover stood two images, called Cherubim by the Hebrews. They are winged creatures, but their form is unlike any living being known to people, though Moses claimed to have seen such beings close to God’s throne. Inside this ark, he placed the two tablets on which the Ten Commandments were engraved, five on each, divided in half so that two and a half directives lay on each side. He set the ark itself in the Most Holy Place. 6 In the Holy Place he positioned a table resembling those at Delphi, two cubits long, one cubit wide, and three spans high. It had feet shaped like Doric bed legs at the base, but where the table surface was, the legs were squared off. Each edge of the tabletop turned slightly upward about four fingers in depth, spiraling around both the upper and lower perimeter. Near the top of each table leg, a ring was attached so that gilded wooden poles could be passed through—removable if desired—by means of a small cavity that fit the ring’s open ends (they did not form a complete circle). Thus, it could be carried when needed. This table stood on the north side of the sanctuary, close to the Most Holy Place. On it were laid twelve unleavened loaves, stacked in two rows of six each. These loaves were made from two-tenths of an ephah of the finest flour. (A tenth-ephah is a Hebrew measure containing about seven Athenian kotylae.) Two gold vials of frankincense were also placed with the loaves. Each Sabbath (which is how we designate the seventh day) fresh loaves replaced them, and the previous ones were removed. Concerning the original reason for placing these loaves there, we will discuss it elsewhere. 7 Opposite this table, near the southern side, was set a cast-gold lampstand, hollow inside and weighing one hundred pounds, called cinchares by the Hebrews (in Greek it signifies a talent). It featured knops, lilies, pomegranates, and bowls—seventy ornamental details in all. From one central stem rising from a single base, it branched out to match the number of the seven planets, with seven arms all on one level. Each arm supported a single lamp, giving seven lamps in total, corresponding to the number of the planets. They were oriented eastward and southward, with the lampstand standing somewhat diagonally. 8 Between this lampstand and the table, both inside the sanctuary, stood the altar of incense, also made from the same incorruptible wood as the other vessels and overlaid entirely with a gold plate. Each side measured one cubit, but its height was two cubits. A golden grate rose above the altar, encircled by a golden crown with rings and rods fitted for the Priests to carry it during their journeys. Outside the Tabernacle was a bronze altar built over a core of wood, each side measuring five cubits, and three cubits high, clad with gleaming bronze plates. It had a bronze netted hearth, open below so that the ground beneath received the fire. By this altar lay basins, vials, censers, and caldrons of gold, while the other sacrificial vessels were made of brass. This completes the description of the Tabernacle and the vessels belonging to it.

1 There were distinct garments designated for the Priests (whom we call Cohanim) and for the High Priest (Cohen Gadol, the High Priest’s attire). The rest of the Priests wore the following: whenever a Priest approached the sacrifices, he purified himself as the law prescribes, then first put on what is called the Machannase, meaning a tight-fitting garment. It was a girdle made of fine spun linen, worn around the private parts, with the feet placed through it, serving as breeches. About half was trimmed away so that it reached only to the thighs, where it was securely tied. 2 He then put on a linen robe of fine flax, doubled, having no loose or hollow parts anywhere, with only a narrow opening for the neck. Strings hung from the edges to tie over the chest and back, holding it at the shoulders. This garment was called Massabazanes. 3 On his head he wore a cap, not conical nor covering the entire scalp, but enclosing more than half of it, called the Masnaemphthes. Its design resembled a crown, built up from thick strips of linen wrapped many times, then sewn together. Over the upper part was a piece of fine linen extending down to the forehead, concealing the seams of the fabric so they would not appear untidy. It fit securely around the top of the head so it would not fall off while he performed the sacred duties at the altar. This was the attire of the regular Priests. 4 The High Priest wore the same garments we have just described, without omitting any, but above those he put on a blue robe called the Meeir in our language, a full-length garment reaching down to his feet. Around it was a girdle embroidered in the same colors and floral designs, interlaced with gold. At the hem hung fringes shaped like pomegranates, colored to match, alternating with golden bells so that there was a bell between every two pomegranates and a pomegranate between every two bells. This robe was woven as a single piece without seams at the shoulders or sides. An opening for the neck ran straight along the front and back, with a stitched border around it so it would not look unbecoming, and there were openings for the arms to pass through. 5 Next, the High Priest wore a third garment called the Ephod, resembling the Greek Epomis. It was woven to about a cubit in length from the upper part, in multiple colors with gold included, embroidered, but leaving the middle of the chest exposed. It had short sleeves and resembled a short coat. In the empty space of this garment, about a span wide, was placed a piece of the same material, embroidered with gold and the same colors used in the Ephod. It was called Essen, signifying the Oracle in Greek. This piece filled the Ephod’s opening exactly, fastened with gold rings at the corners and matching rings on the Ephod itself, then laced together with blue ribbons. In between, they used tight stitches of blue ribbons so there was no gap between the rings. On each shoulder of the Ephod was a Sardonyx stone acting like a button; the ends of the straps ran to these gold-set stones to be clasped there. Each stone bore the names of six of Jacob’s sons, in our national alphabet and language, the older six on the right stone. The Oracle (breastplate) was set with twelve magnificent stones, precious and very large, their value beyond normal purchase. They were arranged in four rows of three, embedded in the breastplate itself within golden settings that kept them firmly fixed. The first row of stones was a sardonyx, a topaz, and an emerald; the second, a carbuncle, a jasper, and a sapphire; the third, a ligure, an amethyst, and an agate (the ninth overall); and the fourth row, a chrysolite, an onyx, and a beryl. Upon these stones were engraved the names of Jacob’s twelve sons, recognized by us as the heads of our tribes, each according to birth order. Since the rings alone could not bear the entire weight of the gems, two larger rings were made at the top edge, near the neck side of the breastplate, built into its weaving. Finely crafted chains ran through them, attaching with golden bands to the upper part of the shoulders, whose ends curved behind and engaged another ring set into the back of the Ephod. This secured the breastplate in place. A girdle was sewn to the breastplate in the same colors, with gold thread, encircling the High Priest once and tying at the seam, its fringes passing through golden loops at each end so as to remain fastened. 6 The High Priest’s cap was the same as what we have described for the other Priests, except there was an additional layer of embroidered blue. A polished, triple-tiered golden crown circled it, and from it rose a golden cup shaped like the herb we call Saccharus (known by Greek botanists as Hyoscyamus). So those unfamiliar with this plant—either its name or its appearance—may know: it can be more than three spans tall, has a root similar to a turnip, and leaves like mint. Its branches produce a calyx adhering to each stem, covered by a sheath that falls off when the plant is about to form fruit, about the width of a small finger-bone, shaped like a cup. Imagine a sphere cut in half, rounded at the base but narrower in the middle, widening again at the rim with small segments resembling a pomegranate’s top, except these are sharp prongs. This shell guards the seed inside, which is similar to that of the plant called Sideritis, and it bears a flower a bit like a poppy. From such a shape a golden crown was crafted to run around from the back of the head to each temple, but not covering the forehead, for that was hidden by a golden plate inscribed with God’s name in sacred characters. These were the adornments of the High Priest. 7 One might marvel at the animosity others harbor toward us, claiming we insult the very God they profess to revere. Yet anyone who inspects the Tabernacle’s structure, the High Priest’s clothing, and the vessels used in our sacred service would see that our Lawgiver was divinely inspired and that we are wrongly slandered. A fair-minded observer would see each item as an imitation or symbolic representation of the universe. By dividing the Tabernacle into three, granting two parts as accessible to the Priests (land and sea for everyone) and one part set aside for God alone (like Heaven, inaccessible to humans), Moses signified cosmic truths. Placing twelve loaves on the table represented the year’s twelve months. The lampstand, composed of seventy parts, hinted at the seventy divisions of the planets, which the Greeks call Decani. Its seven lamps aligned with the motion of the seven planets. The veils made of four materials alluded to the four elements: linen signified the earth (from which flax grows), purple represented the sea (dyed from a shellfish’s blood), blue stood for air, and scarlet hinted at fire. The High Priest’s linen robe pointed to the earth; its blue edging and the noise of the bells resembled lightning and thunder. The ephod indicated that God formed all things from four elements, with the gold showing their radiant splendor. The breastplate, placed in the center, stood for the earth, which occupies the universe’s midpoint, and the girdle circling the Priest signified the ocean that encompasses all. The sardonyx buttons on his shoulders corresponded to the sun and moon, while the twelve stones could be read as the year’s months or the zodiac signs. The blue color of the mitre denoted Heaven’s hue, suitable to bear God’s name, while the golden crown showed the divine brightness. This explanation will suffice for now; my narrative will provide further insight into our Lawgiver’s wisdom on many future occasions.

1 Once everything was completed, though no gifts were yet presented, God appeared to Moses and directed him to confer the High Priesthood upon his brother Aaron, the most worthy of the honor because of his virtue. Moses then assembled the people and spoke of Aaron’s worthiness, his goodwill toward them, and the dangers he had faced on their behalf. The crowd confirmed his fitness, demonstrating their willingness to accept him. So Moses said, “Israelites, this great work has been accomplished in a way most pleasing to God, and according to your means. Now, seeing that He is received in this Tabernacle, we first need someone who can act on our behalf, tending to sacrifices and offering prayers for us. If the choice had been mine alone, I might have considered myself qualified—people often favor themselves—and also because I’ve worked ceaselessly for your freedom. However, God Himself has declared Aaron worthy and chosen him as Priest, knowing him to be the most righteous among you. Therefore, he will wear the garments consecrated to God, oversee the altar, provide for sacrifices, and present our prayers to God, who will hear them readily—not only because Aaron is anxious for your well-being, but also because God has personally appointed him to this service.” The Hebrews happily consented, and endorsed him whom God had designated, for Aaron was, indeed, the most deserving, by his lineage, gift of prophecy, and his brother’s distinction. At that time, he had four sons: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. 2 Moses then commanded that any surplus items from constructing the Tabernacle should be used to protect the Tabernacle itself, the lampstand, the incense altar, and the other vessels when traveling, shielding them from rain or dust. After calling the people together again, he enacted that each person pay a half-shekel offering to God (the shekel being Hebrew currency equal to four Athenian drachmas). They promptly obeyed. The total number of contributors came to six hundred five thousand five hundred and fifty. This contribution was from all free men above twenty and under fifty, and the money collected was allocated to the Tabernacle’s needs. 3 Next, Moses purified both the Tabernacle and the Priests by this method: he ordered them to take five hundred shekels of the finest myrrh, the same amount of cassia, half that amount of cinnamon and calamus (the last being a fragrant spice), to grind them and mix them with a hin of olive oil. The hin is a standard measure in our country, equal to two Athenian choas or congiuses. They boiled and blended these ingredients as an apothecary would, creating a sweet ointment. Then they anointed and consecrated the Priests, the Tabernacle, and the sacrifices. There were many other precious spices that belonged to the Tabernacle, offered on the golden incense altar, though describing them all here would be tedious. Incense was offered twice daily—at sunrise and sunset. They also kept purified oil for the lamps, three of which burned continuously before God on the sacred lampstand, while the other four were lit at evening. 4 With everything now finished, Besaleel and Aholiab stood out as the most skilled artisans, discovering more refined techniques than those before them and proving adept at learning new concepts quickly. Of these two, Besaleel was deemed the most capable. Altogether, their work spanned seven months, ending with the close of the first year after leaving Egypt. At the start of the second year, on the new moon of the month called Xanthicus by Macedonians but Nisan by Hebrews, they dedicated the Tabernacle and its vessels, as I have detailed. 5 God showed His pleasure in the Hebrews’ work, not allowing their efforts to be wasted, and indeed saw fit to inhabit what they had constructed. He settled and ‘dwelt’ in the sacred tent, and this is how He did so: although the sky was clear, a cloud hung over the Tabernacle alone, encircling it—not so thick and heavy as in winter, nor so thin as to see through, but from which fell a sweet dew, signaling God’s presence to those who trusted and believed. 6 When Moses had honored the craftsmen with rightful rewards for their excellent work, he offered sacrifices in the open area of the Tabernacle, following God’s instructions: a bull, a ram, and a goat as a sin offering. (I shall later describe in my account of sacrifices the details of our sacred practices, explaining which require a whole burnt offering and which allow shared participation in the meal.) After Moses sprinkled Aaron and his sons, and their garments, with blood from the slaughtered animals, together with spring water and ointment, they became God’s Priests. He repeated this dedication for seven days, doing likewise for the Tabernacle and its vessels, first with incense-infused oil, then with the blood of bulls and rams (one per day). On the eighth day, he proclaimed a festival for the people and commanded them to sacrifice as they were able. They eagerly competed in offering more than each other, and so following Moses’s decree. While the offerings lay upon the altar, a sudden fire appeared among them—self-generated, like a lightning flame—and consumed everything on the altar. 7 At this time, Aaron underwent personal sorrow yet endured it with unwavering resolve. He had four sons, as noted, but the two older ones, Nadab and Abihu, brought unprescribed sacrifices (the type they had offered previously), and they were destroyed by fire that no one could extinguish. Thus they died, and Moses ordered their father and brothers to remove the bodies from the camp for a proper burial. The people deeply mourned for them, since their loss was so unexpected. Moses urged Aaron and his surviving sons not to grieve too much, placing higher honor on God’s service. Aaron himself was already clothed in his priestly vestments. 8 Moses, however, refused all the honors the people wished to lavish on him; he was concerned only with serving God. He no longer ascended Mount Sinai; instead, he entered the Tabernacle to receive divine responses to his requests. He dressed like an ordinary citizen in all respects and behaved as one of the common people, intent only on caring for them. He also wrote down the plan of their governance and the laws they were to follow to please God and remain at peace among themselves. Indeed, these laws came directly from God to Moses, so I will now describe that system of government and those laws. 9 Before that, let me mention one detail about the High Priest’s garment, which I previously omitted. This arrangement left no room for pretenders to prophecy to abuse God’s authority, since God alone would manifest His presence by deciding whether or not to illuminate the sacrifices in front of everyone—including any foreign spectators. Concerning the stones the High Priest wore on his shoulders—Sardonyxes known to everyone—the right stone would gleam whenever God was present at the sacrifices, sending bright rays visible even to the most distant onlookers, although this brilliance was not inherent in the stone by nature. Some may find it incredible, but it is only to be doubted by those who reject divine revelation. There was also an even more astonishing sign in the twelve stones on the breastplate, which would glow spectacularly before the army set out, signifying God’s assistance. Because of this, the Greeks who respected our laws referred to that garment as the Oracle. However, both the shining of this shoulder-stone and the luminous display of the breastplate ceased about two hundred years before I wrote this account, God having become displeased by our disobedience of His commands—on which I shall speak elsewhere. But let us return to the story. 10 With the Tabernacle consecrated and the Priests established, the people believed God now dwelt among them and zealously offered praise and sacrifices, relieved of fears of disaster and hopeful of good things to come. They also presented gifts to God, both jointly and individually, tribe by tribe. The tribal heads partnered in pairs to contribute a cart and a yoke of oxen—six in all—to transport the Tabernacle during marches. Beyond that, each leader brought a bowl, a charger, and a ten-darick spoon full of incense. The bowl and charger were silver, together weighing two hundred shekels, while the bowl alone weighed seventy shekels, each filled with fine flour mixed with oil for sacrifice. They also brought one bullock, one ram, and a yearling lamb for a burnt offering, along with a goat for sin offerings. For peace offerings, they presented two bulls, five rams, five lambs of a year old, and five goats per day for twelve days, one tribal head offering each day. Moses no longer climbed Mount Sinai but entered the Tabernacle for God’s instructions on what they should do and which laws they should observe—laws more excellent than any of human origin and faithfully kept for all time as divine gifts. Neither ease in peaceful times nor adversity in war ever led the Hebrews to violate them. However, I will end this discussion here, having planned another work devoted exclusively to our laws.

1 Since I have been discussing sacrifices, I will now briefly explain several of our laws related to purification and similar sacred activities. We have two main types of sacrifices: one offered by individuals, the other on behalf of the entire people. Moreover, there are two general rituals. In one, the victim is completely consumed by fire and is called a whole burnt offering. In the other, called a thank offering, those who offer it share the feast. Regarding the whole burnt offerings: a private person may sacrifice a bull, a lamb, or a kid goat. The lambs and kids must be of the first year, while bulls can be older, but they must always be males without blemish. After slaughter, the Priests sprinkle the altar with the blood, then clean and quarter the carcass, seasoning it with salt before laying it on the altar over the wood fire. The feet and inner organs are washed thoroughly, then placed alongside the other parts to be consumed by flame, while the Priests receive the hides. That is how whole burnt offerings are offered. 2 With thank offerings, the same species are used, but they may be male or female, still unblemished and at least one year old. Their blood is likewise sprinkled on the altar, but the kidneys, the fat, and the liver lobe (as well as the lamb’s tail) are placed on the altar. The breast and right shoulder go to the Priests, while those making the offering consume the rest of the meat within two days. Any remaining portion after that is burned. 3 The sin offering is performed similarly to thank offerings, except that those who cannot afford a standard sacrificial animal bring two pigeons or two turtledoves—one as a burnt offering and the other as food for the Priests. (I will explain more precisely when I detail all the sacrifices.) A person who sins unknowingly brings a ewe-lamb or a female goat of the same age; the Priest sprinkles its blood upon the corners of the altar rather than around it as before. They then place the kidneys, fat, and liver lobe on the altar, granting the Priests the hide and meat to be eaten in the holy place that same day, since the law prohibits leaving any until morning. If one becomes aware of a transgression yet has no external accuser, he must sacrifice a ram according to the law. The Priests again eat the animal’s flesh on the same day in the holy place. If a leader offers a sacrifice for his sin, the offering is the same as for a common person, except he may bring a bull or a male goat. 4 Our law demands that both private and public sacrifices also include the finest flour. For a lamb, one-tenth of an ephah; for a ram, two-tenths; for a bull, three-tenths. This flour is dedicated upon the altar once mixed with oil (for those who sacrifice must also bring oil—half a hin for a bull, a third for a ram, and a quarter for a lamb). A hin is the ancient Hebrew measure equivalent to two Athenian choas. The same quantity of oil and wine is offered, and the wine is poured around the altar. If someone vows an offering of only fine flour, then a handful of it is burned on the altar as firstfruits, while the Priests keep the remainder for themselves, whether boiled, prepared with oil, or baked into loaves. However, any offering a Priest makes for himself must be fully burned. The law forbids sacrificing an animal on the same day with its mother, and further requires that no animal be offered before it is eight days old. Additional sacrifices are prescribed for recovery from illness or other occasions, in which the grain-offerings accompany the animal victim, and nothing is left over to the next day. The Priests, however, take their rightful portion.

1 The law requires that out of public expenses a lamb of the first year be killed every day at the beginning and at the end of the day. But on the seventh day, which is called the Sabbath, they kill two and sacrifice them in the same way. On the new moon, they also perform the usual daily sacrifices and slaughter two bulls, along with seven first-year lambs, plus a goat kid for the expiation of sins, if they have sinned unintentionally. 2 On the seventh month, which the Macedonians call Hyperberetæus, they add to the offerings already mentioned and sacrifice a bull, a ram, seven lambs, and a goat kid for sins. 3 On the tenth day of the same lunar month, they fast until evening. On this day they sacrifice a bull, two rams, seven lambs, and a goat kid for sins. Besides these, they bring two goat kids: one is sent alive outside the camp into the wilderness as the scapegoat, serving as an atonement for the sins of the entire crowd; but the other is taken to a very clean place within the camp and there burned with its hide, without any washing. Along with this goat, a bull was also burned, not brought by the people but by the High Priest at his own expense. When that bull was slaughtered, the High Priest brought some of its blood into the Holy Place, together with the goat’s blood, and sprinkled the ceiling with his finger seven times, as well as the floor, likewise facing the Holy Place and around the golden altar. Finally, he took it into the open court and sprinkled it around the great altar. In addition, the extremities, kidneys, and fat with the lobe of the liver were placed upon the altar. The High Priest likewise presented a ram to God as a burnt offering. 4 On the fifteenth day of that same month, when the season is turning toward winter, the law instructs us to pitch tabernacles at each of our homes so that we can keep ourselves warm at that colder time of year. It also commands that once we arrive in our own country and reach the city that is to be our capital, on account of the temple to be built there, we must keep an eight-day festival, offering burnt offerings and thank offerings, carrying in our hands branches of myrtle, willow, and palm, together with the pomecitron. On the first of those days, the burnt offering consists of thirteen bulls, fourteen lambs, and fifteen rams, together with a goat kid as a sin offering. On the subsequent days, the same number of lambs, rams, and goat kids are offered, but with the bulls decreasing by one daily until there are only seven. On the eighth day, all work is stopped, and as stated, they sacrifice to God a bull, a ram, seven lambs, and a goat kid for sins. This is the customary festival of the Hebrews when they set up their tabernacles. 5 In the month of Xanthicus, which we call Nisan and regard as the start of our year, on the fourteenth day of the lunar month when the sun is in Aries—since it was in this month that we were freed from Egyptian bondage—the law requires that every year we slaughter the sacrifice I previously mentioned, the same we offered upon our exodus from Egypt, called the Passover. We keep this Passover in groups, and we leave nothing of what is sacrificed until the next day. The Feast of Unleavened Bread begins on the fifteenth day of the month and lasts seven days, during which we eat unleavened bread. Each of those days, two bulls, one ram, and seven lambs are slaughtered, and these lambs are entirely burned, in addition to a goat kid for sins. This kid is allotted to the Priest each of those days. But on the second day of Unleavened Bread, which is the sixteenth day of the month, they partake of the produce of the earth for the first time, for they do not touch it earlier. Convinced that they should honor God first, from whom the harvest is granted, they present the firstfruits of their barley as follows: they take a handful of the ears, dry them, pound them thoroughly, removing the bran, and then bring one tenth-deal to God’s altar, throwing a handful of it on the fire and giving the rest to the Priests. After this point, they may harvest publicly or privately. With this firstfruits offering of the earth, they also sacrifice a lamb as a burnt offering to God. 6 When a full seven weeks—forty-nine days—have elapsed since this offering, on the fiftieth day, called Pentecost (or Asartha by the Hebrews, which also means Pentecost), they bring to God a loaf made of two tenth-deals of wheat flour mixed with leaven. For sacrifices, they present two lambs, and after bringing them to God, those are prepared as a meal for the Priests, with none of it allowed to remain until the following day. They also slaughter three bulls as a burnt offering, two rams, and fourteen lambs, together with two goat kids for sins. Indeed, on each of these festivals, burnt offerings are offered and everyone rests from labor. Accordingly, the law specifies all the kinds of offerings for each festival, and the requirement that people cease work entirely and kill the sacrifices so that they may feast together. 7 However, out of the common contributions the Priest also made a daily offering of baked bread at his own expense, doing so twice each day. It was made of flour mixed with oil and gently baked by fire, using one tenth-deal of flour. He brought half of it to the fire in the morning and the other half at evening. I will later describe these sacrifices more precisely; for now, this overview should suffice.

1 Moses separated the tribe of Levi from the rest of the people, setting them apart as a holy tribe and purifying them with water from perpetual springs and the customary sacrifices offered to God on such occasions. He entrusted them with the tabernacle, the sacred vessels, and the extra curtains made to cover the tabernacle, so they could serve under the direction of the Priests who had already been consecrated to God. 2 He also gave instructions regarding which animals could be used for food and which must be avoided. I will explain these more thoroughly, along with their reasons, when this work allows. However, he strictly forbade us to eat blood, believing that it contained the soul and spirit. He likewise forbade us from eating the flesh of any animal that died of its own accord, as well as the caul and the fat of goats, sheep, and bulls. 3 Moreover, he ruled that anyone afflicted with leprosy or gonorrhea must not enter the city. Similarly, he required women to remain outside until the seventh day of their monthly period, after which he considered them pure and let them return. The same interval applied to those who had handled a corpse. If anyone remained unclean beyond those days, the law prescribed that they offer two lambs in sacrifice: one was purified by fire while the other went to the Priests. Those with gonorrhea sacrificed likewise. A man who emitted seed in his sleep could bathe in cold water and then be in the same condition as one who had been lawfully with his wife. Lepers, however, were not allowed into the city or to live with others, being treated almost as though they were dead. Yet if someone recovered from leprosy through prayer to God and regained a healthy complexion, that person presented thanks to God by various sacrifices, which I will detail later. 4 Consequently, one cannot help but smile at those who claim Moses himself had leprosy when he fled Egypt, and that he led others who likewise suffered from it into the land of Canaan. If that were true, he would never have enacted laws dishonoring himself; indeed, he would have fought such laws had anyone else proposed them. Moreover, lepers in many nations remain honored, free from scorn or avoidance, and have even commanded armies and held significant government offices, while also enjoying access to holy places. If Moses or his people had actually suffered that misfortune of skin discoloration, he might well have instituted laws catering to them rather than imposing penalties. Clearly, it is prejudice alone that circulates these rumors. Moses was free of any such disease, surrounded by countrymen likewise untainted, and framed these statutes for the sake of those who might be afflicted, all in honor of God. Nonetheless, regarding these matters, let anyone think as he chooses. 5 Concerning women who have given birth, Moses forbade them to enter the temple or touch the sacrifices for forty days if they bore a boy, but required eighty days if they bore a girl. After fulfilling that period, they presented their sacrifices, which the Priests offered before God. 6 If a man suspected his wife of adultery, he had to bring one tenth-deal of barley flour. A handful of this was devoted to God, and the rest given to the Priests for food. One of the Priests would place the woman at the gate facing the temple, remove her veil, write God’s name on parchment, and have her swear that she had not wronged her husband. She would invoke a curse upon herself—that if she had indeed broken her marital vows, her right thigh would collapse and her belly swell and that she should die in that condition; but if her husband’s passion and jealousy were unfounded, she would conceive a son at the tenth month. After her oath, the Priest wiped away God’s name from the parchment and squeezed the water into a vial. He then took dust from the temple (if any were there), dropped a bit into the vial, and gave it to her to drink. If she had been unjustly accused, she conceived and brought the child to term; but if she had truly committed adultery and thus sworn falsely before God, she died in disgrace—her thigh withered away and her belly became swollen with dropsy. These were the ceremonies around sacrifices and their related purifications, which Moses established for his countrymen. He also promulgated the following statutes for them.

1 Regarding adultery, Moses forbade it completely, believing it crucial that men act wisely in marriage matters, which he saw as beneficial both to families and to civic well-being, ensuring children’s legitimate parentage. He similarly condemned a man’s having relations with his mother, father’s wife, aunts, sisters, or a son’s wife as monstrous wickedness. He also banned relations with one’s wife during her monthly impurity, prohibited bestiality, and disapproved of intercourse with a male for lustful gratification. He decreed capital punishment for anyone engaging in such insolent behavior. 2 For the Priests he laid down an even stricter purity standard, barring them from all the transgressions just listed and further prohibiting them from marrying prostitutes or slaves, or women taken captive, or those making their living by questionable trades or running inns, or any woman parted from her husband for any reason. He went so far as to forbid the High Priest even from marrying a widow, although he allowed that to ordinary Priests. Rather, the High Priest could marry and keep only a virgin. For this reason the High Priest was not to approach any corpse, while the lesser Priests could come near the bodies of their brothers, parents, or children when deceased, provided they themselves remained unblemished in every other respect. A Priest who had any physical defect was still entitled to his share among the Priests but was forbidden to ascend the altar or enter the Holy House. Moreover, they were to be as pure in their daily conduct as in their sacred officiation, so that no reproach might touch them. Consequently, those who wear the priestly garments must remain spotless and practice strict sobriety. They are also forbidden to drink wine while wearing those garments, and the animals they offer in sacrifice must be entirely free of blemish. 3 Moses handed down all these ordinances, which were observed during his lifetime even as the people still lived in the wilderness, while also planning for their future observance once they took possession of Canaan. He ordained that the land must be left uncultivated and at rest every seventh year, just as the people rested every seventh day, so whatever grew of itself would be for anyone’s use, whether native or foreign. He decreed a similar custom for the forty-ninth and fiftieth years, that is, the year of Jubilee, as the Hebrews term it, when debts would be canceled and slaves released. Those slaves might be fellow Hebrews who were enslaved for some wrongdoing less than capital but handled by servitude. In that same year, any land sold returned to its original owner, as follows: when Jubilee arrived, which signifies ‘freedom,’ the seller and buyer met to tally the cost of improvements and the produce reaped. If the harvested produce exceeded the cost of improvements, the original owner took his land back; if expenses exceeded the produce, the previous owner made up the shortfall so the buyer was repaid. If both were about equal, the buyer relinquished it without profit. Moses commanded the same arrangement for houses sold in villages, but for houses in a walled city he instituted a different rule: if the seller repaid the buyer within a year, the buyer had to return it, but if a full year elapsed, the purchase was final. These were the laws Moses recorded, having learned them from God while the camp remained at Mount Sinai. 4 When Moses had thus finalized these precepts, he decided to review the army to organize affairs of war. Therefore he directed the chieftains of each tribe, apart from Levi, to count all males able to fight. Levi was exempt from such burdens, being sacred. Once counted, those of military age, twenty to fifty, came to six hundred thousand plus three thousand six hundred and fifty. Instead of Levi, Moses took Manasseh (Joseph’s son) among the tribal heads, and Ephraim stood in place of Joseph himself. Indeed, Jacob had asked Joseph to allow him to adopt these sons, as I recounted earlier. 5 After they erected the Tabernacle, they placed it in the center of the camp, with three tribes on each side, streets passing among these tents like the well-ordered alleys of a marketplace. Everything was available in its proper place for trade, all sorts of craftsmen lived there, and it resembled a city that was sometimes mobile, sometimes stationary. The Priests occupied the area immediately around the Tabernacle, then the Levites encamped around them. As they counted males a month old or more, the Levites totaled twenty-three thousand eight hundred and eighty. Whenever the cloud rested over the Tabernacle, they remained, since God’s presence was shown among them by that cloud; but as soon as it rose, they set out to travel. 6 Moses was also the inventor of the form of their trumpets, which were crafted from silver. Each measured just under a cubit in length, shaped like a narrower flute but wide enough for a man’s breath, and ending in a bell like regular trumpets. This instrument was called Asosra in Hebrew. Two such trumpets were made. One alone sounded to summon the chieftains to consult on their concerns, but when both were sounded, the entire multitude gathered. This also served as a signal for breaking camp. At the first blast, the eastern companies packed up; at the second, the southern. Next the Tabernacle was disassembled and borne in the midst of six tribes in front and six behind. The Levites surrounded the Tabernacle. At the third blast, those on the west set out, and at the fourth, those on the north. They used these trumpets in sacred duties when bringing sacrifices to the altar, as well as on Sabbaths and other days. It was at this time that Moses offered the Passover sacrifice in the wilderness, the first he had performed since leaving Egypt.

1 A little later he departed Mount Sinai, advancing through various stations of which I will speak shortly, until he arrived at a place called Hazeroth. There, the people again began murmuring, accusing Moses of the hardships they had borne on their journey. They complained that he had convinced them to leave a good land, only to rob them of it, and that instead of the prosperity he had promised, they were still wandering in dire circumstances, short on water, and with only manna to rely on. If the manna failed them, they would surely die. While many spoke harshly against Moses, one of them urged that they not forget all the trouble Moses had taken for their common survival and that they should not lose faith in God’s help. But these pleas only aggravated the crowd, who grew more embittered. Even so, Moses, in spite of their abuse, encouraged them and promised that God would soon provide them abundant meat for many days. When they doubted him and one man asked where he could possibly find such provision, Moses answered that neither God nor he, despite their insults, would forsake them, which they would soon realize. Immediately, the entire camp was filled with quails, and people gathered them in large numbers. However, it was not long before God punished many Hebrews for their disrespectful words, so a considerable number died. To this day the place commemorates that calamity, being called Kibroth-hattaavah, meaning the graves of desire.

1 From there, Moses led the Hebrews to a place called Paran, close to the Canaanite border, a site difficult to remain in. He called the entire people together and declared: “God has decided to grant us two things, freedom and a blessed homeland. You already possess the first, and you will soon obtain the other. We are now encamped at the edge of Canaan, and neither King nor city, indeed no human force whatever, can bar us from taking it. But be prepared: the Canaanites will not give up their land without a fight, so we must wrest it from them by warfare. Let us send scouts to examine the fertility of the land and the might of its inhabitants. Above all, let us remain united and give due honor to God, who is our supreme helper.” 2 When Moses finished speaking, the people showed him respect and chose twelve of their leading men, one from each tribe, to explore the entire region of Canaan from the Egyptian border to Hamath and Mount Lebanon. After forty days scouting the land and its inhabitants, these men returned, bringing samples of the land’s produce and displaying its great bounty, which stirred the people’s readiness for war. Yet they also spoke of the great obstacles—deep rivers, towering hills, and strong-walled cities that were well fortified. They had discovered in Hebron descendants of giants. The spies who had seen Canaan, intimidated by these greater challenges than any they had faced since leaving Egypt, were themselves frightened and tried to instill fear in the crowd as well. 3 Convinced from these reports that seizing the land was impossible, the assembled throng dispersed, continuing to lament all night with their wives and children. They believed God had misled them and again turned against Moses and Aaron, the High Priest, heaping abuses on them. In the morning they gathered, intending to stone both men and then return to Egypt. 4 But of the spies, Joshua son of Nun (from Ephraim) and Caleb (from Judah), alarmed by the people’s reaction, went among them to calm their fury. They urged everyone not to doubt God’s word or credit those who exaggerated the dangers, but instead to trust that with God’s help they could triumph and claim that promised inheritance. Neither high mountains nor deep rivers would stop truly courageous people, especially with God anticipating their needs. “Let us march now,” they said, “and have no fear of defeat, relying on God to guide us and following our leaders.” Moses and Aaron, meanwhile, fell facedown, pleading with God to curb the people’s rash impulses. Then the divine cloud appeared over the Tabernacle, signifying God’s presence.

1 Moses then stood before the people and told them that God was angered by their scorn toward him, intending to punish them—though not as harshly as they might deserve, but as a father chastises his children. He explained that while he was in the Tabernacle, lamenting the destruction about to happen to them, God reminded him of all the favor bestowed upon them and of their ingratitude. They had listened to the fearful spies rather than trusting God’s own promise. For this reason, though God would not exterminate the entire nation that he had preferred above all peoples, he would prevent them from taking possession of Canaan. Instead, they would wander homeless in the wilderness for forty years, deprived of the settlement they had forfeited by their disobedience, whereas their children would inherit the happy land they themselves had spurned through their lack of discipline. 2 Moses relayed this divine message to the people, who grieved and begged him to advocate for reconciliation with God, so they might stop roaming and be granted cities to dwell in. But he told them that God would not undo that decree, for it was no human whim or outburst of anger, but a just verdict. Nor should anyone doubt that a lone man like Moses could quell the rage of so many thousands and turn them toward a gentler course; God was with him, paving the way for the people’s submission, and they themselves realized how their previous defiance had repeatedly brought disaster. 3 This man’s virtue was so remarkable and his authority so convincing that men obeyed what he prescribed even long after his death, as though he were present to punish wrongdoing. No Hebrew dares violate the laws he set down, even in secret, because their reverence for him is so great. There are many proofs that his influence surpassed mere human power. Even travelers from beyond the Euphrates, enduring a four-month journey through countless dangers and expenses to honor our temple, sometimes found themselves barred from eating their own sacrificial offerings because of some Mosaic regulation that forbade it, or some ritual circumstance that made them unfit. Some therefore did not sacrifice at all, while others left their offerings incomplete. Many could not even enter the temple gates from the start, yet all yielded to Moses’s law, preferring to follow his commandments rather than gratify themselves, even when they might have done otherwise unobserved. This legislation, evidently divine, caused men to revere Moses as more than mortal. Indeed, not long before our recent war, under Emperor Claudius and High Priest Ismael, we suffered such a famine that a tenth-deal of flour cost four drachmas, and seventy cori of flour were brought into the temple at Passover (a cor being thirty-one Sicilian or forty-one Athenian medimni). Even then, no Priest dared consume even a crumb of it, for fear of breaking the law and provoking God’s anger, though no one could have accused them, if they had done so. That is why we need not wonder at earlier events, since Moses’s written ordinances still hold such sway that even our enemies admit the Founder of our constitution was God himself, working through Moses’s virtue. Still, each may regard these things as he pleases.