Antiquities of the Jews, Book 2

1 After the death of Isaac, his sons divided their homes accordingly. They did not keep what they had before: but Esau left the city of Hebron to his brother and settled in Seir, ruling over Idumea. He named that country after himself, for he was called Adom, a name he acquired on the following occasion. Once, returning from the toil of hunting, very hungry—it was when he was a child in age—he found his brother as he was preparing lentil stew for his meal; it had a deep red color. Because of this, Esau longed for it more intensely and asked his brother to give him some to eat. But Jacob took advantage of Esau’s hunger, forcing him to surrender his birthright by oath. So it happened that, on account of the redness of the stew, people as a joke called him Adom. For the Hebrews call what is red ‘Adom,’ which then gave that country its name, though the Greeks changed its pronunciation and called it Idumea. 2 Esau became the father of five sons: Jaus, Jalomus, and Coreus were born to him by one wife named Alibama, while Aliphaz was born to him by Ada, and Raguel by Basemath. These were Esau’s sons. Aliphaz had five legitimate sons: Theman, Omer, Saphus, Gotham, and Kanaz. Amalek was not legitimate but came from a concubine named Thamna. They lived in that part of Idumea called Gebalitis, and the region named Amalekitis after Amalek. For Idumea was large and retained its name over the whole land, while particular parts held the names of those who had settled there.

1 It happened that Jacob reached an extraordinary level of happiness, one that few ever achieve. He was wealthier than the other inhabitants of that land, and he was simultaneously both envied and admired for having such virtuous sons. They lacked nothing and were great-hearted both in their willingness to work and endure hardship; they were also insightful in understanding. And God watched over him with such providence and care for his good that God brought about the greatest blessings out of what seemed to be the most sorrowful circumstances, making Jacob the cause of our ancestors’ departure from Egypt—he and his descendants. The way it happened was as follows: when Rachel bore Jacob this son Joseph, Jacob loved him more than all his other sons, both because of his appearance and the virtues of his mind, as he excelled them in prudence. This paternal affection stirred his brothers’ envy and hatred, as did the dreams he revealed to them and their father, which foretold his future prosperity. It is common for people to envy even their nearest relatives when they foresee their success. Joseph’s visions were these. 2 While they were in the middle of the harvest, and Joseph’s father sent him to his brothers to help gather the fruits of the earth, he had a dream that exceeded the usual scenes that come in sleep. When he awoke, he recounted his dream, asking his brothers what it might mean. He said, ‘Last night, I saw my wheat sheaf remain standing where I set it, but your sheaves moved on their own to bow down before mine, like servants bow to their masters.’ Recognizing that the vision foretold Joseph would gain power and wealth—potentially at their expense—the brothers offered no interpretation to him, pretending they did not understand the dream. But they prayed that none of the things they suspected might happen, and because of it, their hatred of him grew. 3 Yet God, counteracting their envy, sent Joseph another vision, even more extraordinary than the first. This time it seemed to him that the sun brought along the moon and the rest of the stars down to the earth to bow before him. He told this vision to his father as well, suspecting no malice from his brothers, and asked him to interpret it. Jacob was pleased with the dream. Reflecting on it with keen perception, he rejoiced at the good things foretold for his son, as it pointed to a future time when Joseph, through God’s blessing, would be honored by his parents and brothers—when they would see him as worthy of respect. Jacob understood the sun and moon to represent Joseph’s father and mother, the one giving form and the other nourishing all things. As for the stars, being eleven in number, they resembled his brothers, who received their power from the sun and moon. 4 Jacob’s interpretations, astute as they were, brought intense grief to Joseph’s brothers, who now saw him no longer as a brother but as a stranger, someone destined for the good things the dreams predicted. They believed they would not share in Joseph’s good fortune and decided to kill him. Having firmly settled on that plan, as soon as the harvest was in, they left for Shechem—a place good for feeding cattle and pasturing sheep—without notifying their father that they had moved there. Jacob became anxious for his sons because he had no news of their well-being. Troubled by uncertainty, he sent Joseph to the flocks to discover how his brothers were faring and to bring back word. 1 The moment the brothers saw Joseph approaching, they felt no joy at the arrival of a close relative or someone sent by their father, but instead saw him as an enemy delivered into their hands by divine providence. They had already resolved to kill him, determined not to waste the chance now before them. But Reubel, the eldest, noticed their intentions and the consensus they had reached. He attempted to dissuade them, showing them the enormity of what they planned and its dreadful character. He argued that even killing an unrelated person would appear sinful in God’s sight and monstrous to humankind—far more so if it were their own brother. It would be an offense not only to Joseph but to their father, since he would be wronged in the murder of his son, and to their mother, who would mourn the loss of her child in an unnatural way. Reubel implored them to heed their consciences, foreseeing the dire consequences of murdering such a virtuous child who was also the youngest brother. He urged them to fear God, who already saw and knew their designs, whether in remote places or in cities, for wherever a person is, God is also. He further warned them that their own consciences would become their enemies if they completed this wicked deed, and they could never escape that inner judgment. He reminded them that it was not right to kill a brother, even if he had done them wrong, that in such close kinship one should let go of grievances rather than store them up. But their hatred of Joseph was baseless, as he had never actually harmed them—his only ‘fault’ was his youth, which should have softened their hearts to care for him. Above all, their cause for intending to kill him made it that much worse, for they were driven by envy at the future prosperity they feared he would attain. But if he had indeed received such prosperity from God, they as his nearest kin would have also shared in it. Reubel reminded them that God, who deemed Joseph worthy of fortune, would not ignore their crime if they took Joseph’s life, obstructing God’s plan. 2 Reubel used pleas and arguments to turn them from their plan to murder their brother, but seeing them unmoved and determined to act, he at least tried to lessen the severity of the crime by altering the manner of Joseph’s death. Since he could not convince them not to seek vengeance at all, he proposed a lesser cruelty, urging them not to kill their brother with their own hands but to throw him into the nearby pit so that he might perish there. In that way, they would avoid staining their hands with his blood. The young men readily agreed. Reubel then bound Joseph with a cord, lowering him gently into the pit, which had no water. After this, Reubel went away to seek a better place to pasture the flocks. 3 But when Reubel had gone, Judas, also one of Jacob’s sons, noticed some Arabian traders, descendants of Ishmael, transporting spices and Syrian goods from Gilead to Egypt. He advised his brothers to pull Joseph from the pit and sell him to these merchants, reasoning that if Joseph were to die far away and among strangers, it would be less of an evil act than outright murder. They agreed. So they lifted Joseph out and sold him to the merchants for twenty pieces of silver. He was seventeen years old at the time. Reubel later returned by night, planning secretly to rescue Joseph, but when he called out there was no answer, and he feared they had killed him in his absence. The brothers explained what they had done, and Reubel stopped his lamenting. 4 Wanting to escape their father’s suspicions, Joseph’s brothers had taken from him the distinctive coat he was wearing when he came to them. They tore this coat into pieces, dipped it in goat’s blood, and brought it to Jacob, suggesting he had fallen prey to wild beasts, if indeed that was the coat he wore when he left home. Jacob, already dreading misfortune, confirmed it was Joseph’s coat, and concluded that an animal had killed him. Giving up hope, he mourned Joseph as if he had lost an only child, refusing all comfort from his other sons and was as distressed as if he truly had no more children left. He put on sackcloth, remained in deep sorrow, and found no relief over time or from his sons’ attempts to comfort him.

1 Now these brothers rejoiced as soon as they saw Joseph coming toward them—not as if a close relative or someone sent by their father had arrived, but as if an enemy, delivered into their hands by divine providence, had come. They already intended to kill him, determined not to waste the opportunity before them. But when Reubel, the eldest, saw their intentions and that they had agreed together to carry them out, he tried to stop them, showing them the wickedness of their plan and the dreadful nature of it—that this act would appear wicked in God’s sight and irreverent before people, even if they killed someone unrelated; how much more atrocious and detestable if they killed their own brother. By doing so, they would treat their father unjustly in the killing of his son, and they would cause their mother distress as she mourned the loss of her son, and that not by any natural cause. So he pleaded with them to heed their consciences and to consider wisely what harm would come to them for killing such a good child, their youngest brother, and to fear God, who was already both a witness and observer of what they intended against their brother—that God would love them if they refrained from this act and turned to repentance. But if they proceeded to do it, all sorts of punishments would overtake them from God for this murder of their brother, since they disrespected His providence, which is everywhere present and does not ignore deeds done whether in the wilderness or in cities. For wherever a person is, there one must suppose God is also. He told them further that their own consciences would be their enemies if they went through with such a wicked plan—a burden they could never escape—whether it was a conscience at peace or one stained by their brother’s murder. He added that it was not righteous to kill a brother, even if he had wronged them, and that it is good to forgive the offenses of close relatives, even in matters where they seem to have erred. But Joseph had done nothing wrong to them, and given his youth, they ought to show him mercy and unite in preserving his life. He said the reason for killing him made the act itself even worse, since they intended to do it out of envy at his future prosperity, of which they would naturally share while he enjoyed it, being not strangers but his closest kin. For they could consider whatever God granted Joseph as their own, and it was right to believe that God’s anger would be more severe if they killed the one He had judged worthy of prosperity, making it impossible for God to grant it to him. 2 Reubel said these and many other things, using entreaties to try to turn them from murdering their brother. But when he saw that his words did not soften them at all and that they were determined to carry out their plan quickly, he advised them to lessen the wickedness of Joseph’s end. For though he had first urged them not to seek revenge, and they had decided to kill their brother, he said they would be less guilty if they would follow his current advice, which might still accomplish what they were intent on, but in a less terrible way. So he begged them not to kill their brother with their own hands but to throw him into the nearby pit so he would die there, and so preventing their own hands from being stained with his blood. The young men readily agreed to this. Then Reubel took the boy, tied him with a cord, and gently lowered him into the pit, which had no water in it. After doing so, Reubel went away to find pasture suitable for feeding his flocks. 3 But Judah, also one of Jacob’s sons, noticed some Arabians descended from Ishmael carrying spices and Syrian goods from Gilead to Egypt. After Reubel had left, Judah advised his brothers to pull Joseph out of the pit and sell him to these Arabians, reasoning that if Joseph died far away among strangers, they would be freed from the brutality of outright murder. They agreed to this plan. So they drew Joseph out of the pit and sold him to the merchants for twenty pieces of silver. He was then seventeen years old. Later that night, Reubel returned to the pit, planning to rescue Joseph without his brothers’ knowledge. But when he called out and received no answer, he feared they had killed him after he left. He confronted his brothers, and when they told him what they had done, Reubel stopped his mourning. 4 Having done this to Joseph, his brothers then considered how to avoid raising their father’s suspicions. They had taken from Joseph the coat he wore when he came to them and lowered him into the pit, so they tore the coat to pieces and dipped it in goat’s blood. Then they brought it to their father, so he might believe Joseph was devoured by wild beasts. After doing so, they approached the old man, but only after he had already heard something of what happened to his son. They claimed they had not seen Joseph and did not know what misfortune had happened to him, but they had found his coat bloodied and torn to pieces, leading them to suspect he had been killed by wild animals—if indeed that was the coat he had worn from home. Jacob had once hoped his son might have been taken captive, but now he gave up that possibility, believing the bloodied coat proved Joseph was dead. He remembered well that this was the coat Joseph wore when he sent him to his brothers. From then on, Jacob mourned Joseph as if he were truly dead, and as though he were father to no other children, finding no comfort in the rest. He had already been troubled by fears of Joseph’s destruction by wild beasts, so he sat down, dressed in sackcloth and weighed down by heavy grief, finding no relief even when his sons tried to console him, and no respite over time.

1 Potiphar, an Egyptian who was chief cook to King Pharaoh, bought Joseph from the traders. He treated Joseph with high regard, taught him the education suited to a free man, and allowed him better food than was given to slaves. He also entrusted Joseph with the care of his house. So Joseph enjoyed these advantages, yet did not abandon the virtue he had before, even under this change of condition, showing that true wisdom can master the troubles of life in those who truly possess it and do not merely claim it when things go well. 2 When Potiphar’s wife became infatuated with Joseph because of his appearance and his capable management of affairs, she believed she could easily persuade him to lie with her. She expected he would consider it a stroke of good luck that his mistress would beg him for such a favor, supposing he would regard his status as a slave and not his moral character, which still guided him even in servitude. But when she revealed her improper intentions, Joseph refused her advances, viewing it as irreligious to wrong the man who had purchased him and had honored him so generously. He implored her to restrain herself, reminding her that if all hope of success was lost, her passion would eventually subside. He vowed that he would suffer anything rather than yield. Although it might be his duty, as a slave, not to oppose his mistress, he believed this case was an exception, concerning a command no one should obey. Joseph’s steadfast refusal only inflamed her desire. Overcome by her shameful passion, she prepared to try again. 3 A public festival came, and it was customary for women to attend in person, but Potiphar’s wife feigned sickness to her husband, planning a time of solitude to again beg Joseph. Once she found him alone, she tried even more tender words than before. She told him it would have been better to comply earlier, bearing in mind her dignity and her passion, which forced her to lower herself beneath her station, even though she was his mistress. By accepting her proposal now, he could rectify his previous error, whether he had resisted because he doubted her earnestness or because he had hoped she would not persist. She had now proven her seriousness by pretending sickness just to see him, preferring his company over a public celebration. If he complied, he would secure continued advantages and even greater ones in the future. But if he refused, she would hate him and falsely accuse him before her husband, who would trust her account over his, no matter the truth. 4 Despite her words and tears, Joseph would neither pity her enough to sin nor fear her threats enough to obey. He was determined not to betray his conscience or to do anything worthy of death. He reminded her that she was married, that she should remain faithful to her husband, that the fleeting gratification of forbidden desire would only bring lasting regret. Even if it were concealed, no secrecy was guaranteed; she could have a clear conscience only with her husband before God and humanity. She would prove herself more worthy in maintaining her dignity and authority by preserving her chastity than by falling into shame. Joseph explained that a moral, well-lived life would yield far better peace than relying on the hope of hiding a wrongdoing. 5 Saying much more, Joseph tried to calm her uncontrolled passion and direct it toward reason. Still, her passion worsened, and in her desperation, she tried to force him. Joseph escaped her grasp, leaving his garment behind, for he slipped out of it and fled. Fearing that he might accuse her, and stung by his refusal, she resolved to accuse Joseph first so she could avenge her pride by having him punished. She feigned deep sorrow, acting upset so that her sadness over being thwarted would appear as grief for an assault on her virtue. When Potiphar returned and, seeing her gloom, asked for an explanation, she accused Joseph. ‘Husband,’ she said, ‘may you not live another day if you do not punish this wicked slave who tried to defile our bed, forgetting both who he was and the kindness he has received. He tried to violate me, choosing his own wicked impulses over his obligations. Surely your generosity to him emboldened him to expect he could touch your wife as well.’ So saying, she showed him Joseph’s garment, claiming he left it behind in his attempt. Potiphar, swayed by his wife’s tears, paid no heed to Joseph’s defense but threw him into prison, trusting more in his wife’s modesty than Joseph’s innocence, and so also believing she was all the more virtuous for her supposed resistance.

1 Joseph, trusting everything to God, offered no defense or explanation, but patiently endured his bonds and hardship, fully believing that God, who knew he was unjustly accused, would overpower those who wronged him. God soon showed proof of this providence, for the prison warden, recognizing Joseph’s diligence and reliability in his assigned tasks, and noting his dignified appearance, eased his confinement, making his imprisonment less severe. He also provided Joseph with better rations than the other prisoners. In that same prison were others, who, when their daily labors were finished, would share their stories of how they came to be imprisoned, as fellow sufferers often do. Among them was the King’s cupbearer, once highly esteemed, now held in bonds by the King’s displeasure. Growing close to Joseph, and seeing he was more perceptive than the rest, the cupbearer told him of a troubling dream he had, asking Joseph to interpret it. 2 He explained that in his sleep, he saw three clusters of grapes on three vine branches, already full and ripe. He squeezed them into a cup the King held, and when he had strained the wine, he handed it to the King, who received it with delight. This was what the man recalled and asked Joseph, if he had some special insight, to determine what it foretold. Joseph told him not to be afraid but to hope for his release within three days, for the King needed his service again. Joseph noted that grapes are given by God for good and as a pledge of fidelity and goodwill among people, ending their conflicts and lifting their spirits. The dream of pressing wine from three clusters directly into the King’s cup signified that in three days he would be freed from bondage. Joseph asked him to remember him in that moment, to show kindness once he had experienced the fulfillment of these words. He reminded the cupbearer that Joseph was wrongfully confined, having committed no crime, but having acted honorably even under distress. The cupbearer took hope in these words, eagerly waiting to see them fulfilled. 3 Another of the King’s servants, his chief baker, was also in prison with them, and he too hoped for a favorable interpretation based on Joseph’s encouraging words to the cupbearer. The baker described his dream from the night before: ‘It seemed I carried three baskets on my head, the lower two filled with bread and the top one containing sweet pastries and other delicacies for the King, but birds flew down and devoured them all, despite my attempts to shoo them away.’ He hoped Joseph would interpret this dream just as positively. Yet Joseph, reflecting on it, replied that he would prefer to speak good news rather than what the dream implied, but it foretold the baker’s death in three days. The three baskets signified three days, after which he would be hanged and his flesh left to be eaten by birds, leaving him unable to defend himself. The cupbearer and baker’s dreams turned out just as Joseph had said, each receiving the fate Joseph predicted. For on the third day, the King celebrated his birthday and had the chief baker hanged, but released the cupbearer and restored him to his former duties. 4 Despite Joseph’s correct interpretation, the cupbearer forgot him for two years, leaving Joseph in his confinement. But God freed Joseph at last by a wondrous sequence of events. Pharaoh had two dreams in one night, and though he recalled the visions themselves, he forgot their interpretation. Troubled by these ominous dreams, he assembled Egypt’s wisest men, asking them to interpret, but they were perplexed. Distressed, Pharaoh stirred the cupbearer’s memory of Joseph’s ability to read dreams. The cupbearer spoke up, telling the King of the dream he had in prison and Joseph’s exact reading of it, along with the baker’s dream, all of which happened precisely as Joseph said. The cupbearer mentioned that Joseph was a Hebrew man, sold into slavery by Potiphar, the head cook, but from a noble family, his father a man of standing. If Pharaoh summoned Joseph, disregarding his misfortunes, the King would learn what his own dreams meant. Pharaoh therefore commanded Joseph to be brought before him, ensuring he was properly dressed as befitting an audience with the King. 5 The King took Joseph by the hand. ‘Young man,’ he said, ‘my servant tells me you are the best to consult in such matters. Please grant me the same favor you showed him by telling me what my dreams portend. I urge you to hold back nothing through fear or flattery, even if the truth is distressing. In my dream, I was walking by the river and saw seven large, healthy cows emerging from the water to graze among the reeds. Then seven more cows appeared, all lean and haggard, which devoured the robust ones but remained as gaunt as before, still desperately thin. Startled, I awoke, but soon slept again and dreamed another vision, even more terrifying. I saw seven ears of wheat sprouting from a single root, weighed down by ripe, abundant grain. Near them grew seven other ears, scorched and withered for lack of rain, which consumed the healthy ears, leaving me appalled. That is what I saw, and I ask you to reveal its meaning.’ 6 Joseph answered, ‘Your Majesty, both dreams point to the same event. The cows, which work the plow, and the ears of grain similarly represent a conflict between times of prosperity and times of dire need. The seven fine cows and seven full ears mean seven years of abundance for Egypt, but the seven lean cows and seven shriveled ears mean seven years of famine that will deplete all that surplus. The starving cows, which remained just as thin even after devouring the healthy ones, indicates how unrelenting the famine will be, consuming the memory of those good years. But God does not reveal the future to grieve us but so people can act prudently to mitigate coming hardships. By carefully conserving the bounty of the seven good years and avoiding wasteful excess, you, Your Majesty, will ensure Egypt survives the seven years of scarcity.’ 7 Impressed by Joseph’s wisdom, Pharaoh asked how the surplus could be most effectively managed so that the years of hardship would be less severe. Joseph advised sparing food during the abundant years, giving people only as much as they needed to live on, and storing the rest to guard against the future scarcity. Pharaoh marveled at Joseph’s interpretation and counsel, granting him authority to oversee the land’s produce. Joseph was entrusted with the King’s own seal and wore royal robes of purple. He traveled throughout Egypt, collecting the people’s grain, leaving them only enough to sow and feed themselves, without explaining his full purpose. In this way, the King and the Egyptians would benefit from Joseph’s strategy, which he was confident would prove invaluable later. Thus Joseph’s prestige grew among Egyptians, and they loved the King more because of Joseph.

1 Joseph was thirty years old when the King granted him these honors and called him Psothom Phanech, meaning ‘revealer of secrets’ for his remarkable wisdom. He married a woman of high status, Asenath, daughter of Petephres, a priest of Heliopolis. Before the famine arrived, she bore Joseph two sons. The elder he named Manasseh, meaning ‘forgetful,’ because his new happiness made him forget his earlier misfortunes. The younger he named Ephraim, meaning ‘restored,’ because God had brought him back to the freedom of his ancestors. After Egypt completed seven prosperous years in keeping with the dream’s interpretation, the eighth year brought the famine; so harsh that it afflicted everyone, even though they had no expectation of it. The people flocked to the royal granaries, and by the King’s orders, Joseph sold them grain. He became a savior not only to Egyptians but to strangers allowed to buy food, as Joseph believed all humankind, being one family, should help one another in times of need. 2 Meanwhile, Jacob heard that foreigners could also buy grain in Egypt. Since Canaan suffered the same severe famine, he sent his sons there, keeping only Benjamin, Rachel’s other child, behind. Joseph recognized them immediately, but they did not know him, as he had been just a youth when they last saw him, and his advanced age and princely appearance concealed his identity. Joseph wished to test their reactions about the most critical matters: whether his father was still alive, and whether Benjamin lived, fearing they had treated Benjamin as they had treated him. Acting sternly, Joseph accused them of being spies. Because of their handsome features and the many hardships in Egypt, he alleged they were not truly one family but people from different places who had joined forces. They insisted otherwise. 3 Deeply disturbed, they protested they were brothers, all sons of a single father named Jacob, who had twelve sons by four wives, a large and flourishing family until their brother Joseph died. Their father could never get over his sorrow, and they were still grieving for their brother’s loss. They said they had left Benjamin behind to watch over their father, and if Joseph inquired, he would discover their story was true. Reubel, the eldest, spoke for them. Joseph listened, satisfied to learn Jacob lived and that Benjamin was safe. Wanting to investigate further, Joseph had them imprisoned for three days. Then he brought them out, saying, ‘If you’re indeed brothers and not spies, leave one among you here, unharmed, while the rest carry grain home to your father. Then you must return with your brother to prove your claims.’ 4 Hearing this, they grew more anxious. They wept and lamented to each other that their punishment had come because of their cruelty to Joseph, recalling his pleas in the pit and how they refused him mercy. Reubel admonished them for their delayed remorse that couldn’t save Joseph now, urging them to accept God’s righteous retribution. They had no idea Joseph understood them, as they spoke in their own language, yet he listened, moved to tears. He quickly stepped away, returning after regaining composure. Then, choosing Symeon to remain as a pledge, Joseph let the rest take their bags of grain and depart, secretly returning their silver to each sack. 5 When they reached Canaan, they recounted their ordeal: how the Egyptian governor accused them of spying, demanded they bring Benjamin, and kept Symeon until they returned. They begged their father not to fear, but to send Benjamin with them. Jacob could not endure the thought of losing Benjamin and refused Reubel’s offer that Jacob could kill Reubel’s own sons if Benjamin did not return safely. Yet, as the famine worsened, and the grain from Egypt was consumed, necessity forced Jacob to relent. Judas boldly promised he would give his life if anything happened to Benjamin. Finally, Jacob sent them back to Egypt, bringing double the silver and presents of the land—balsam, rosin, turpentine, and honey—hoping to appease the Egyptian. He wept as they left, fearing for their safe return, while they also shed tears for their father’s sake, lamenting how they might find him if they failed. 6 Arriving in Egypt, they were taken to Joseph’s house. Fearing accusations over the returned silver, they explained to the steward how they found the money in their sacks. He answered that he knew nothing of it and released Symeon. Soon Joseph arrived from the palace. They offered him their gifts, and he asked about their father’s well-being. Seeing Benjamin, he asked if this was indeed their youngest brother. They replied that it was, and he prayed, ‘May the God over all watch over you.’ Overcome with emotion, Joseph wept privately, then composed himself. He seated them in birth order at supper, surprising them, and though he was generous to all, he gave Benjamin a double portion. 7 After supper, Joseph instructed his steward to fill their sacks with grain, again hiding each man’s silver inside, and to place Joseph’s treasured cup in Benjamin’s sack. This was to test whether they would abandon Benjamin if he were accused of theft. Unaware of the setup, the brothers departed at dawn with Symeon, rejoicing that both he and Benjamin were safe. But Joseph’s men soon overtook them, accusing them of stealing the royal cup. The brothers, confident of their innocence, invited them to search at will, even offering that if it were found among them, let that guilty person die. When the cup was discovered in Benjamin’s sack, they tore their garments in grief. They returned, recalling how they had reassured their father that they would protect Benjamin and despairing over this calamity. 8 Taken back before Joseph, they pleaded for Benjamin and offered themselves in his place, remembering their sin against Joseph and accepting the fitting punishment. Reubel spoke harshly about their past actions, but Joseph insisted the guilty must remain, and the rest were free to leave. The brothers stood dumbfounded, speechless in their sorrow, until Judas courageously approached to risk himself for Benjamin. ‘Governor,’ he pleaded, ‘we are guilty of great wrongdoing. Yet there may be hope in your goodness. When we last came, you saved us from starvation. Now, I beg you, do not let our family be destroyed because of our youngest brother. Our elderly father adores him. If we return without him, our father will die of grief. Take me in his place, but let the boy go free. Our father has endured enough suffering. Please be merciful to us in this, for we are yours to punish in any way you see fit.’ The brothers wept with Judas, willing to share the same fate as Benjamin. 9 Moved deeply, Joseph sent everyone else away so he could reveal himself to his brothers in private. ‘I commend you for your loyalty to our brother,’ he said. ‘I see now that you are better men than I imagined when you conspired against me. Everything that has happened was part of God’s plan for our deliverance and prosperity. Do not fear punishment from me, nor torment yourselves over your earlier wickedness. What you intended for harm, God turned into good. Our father is still alive, and you show love to our brother—let us rejoice rather than grieve. Return quickly to our father and bring him here with all your families and possessions, for we still have five years of famine ahead. You shall live near me and share in my good fortune.’ He embraced them while they shed tears of relief. The King, hearing of Joseph’s brothers, was delighted and sent wagons of grain, silver, and gold for their father’s household. Joseph gave each brother generous gifts, with a special abundance for Benjamin, and they went on their way.

1 Jacob, learning that Joseph was alive, ruling over Egypt in splendor—news confirmed by his returning sons—was overcome with joy he had never expected. He did not think it incredible, trusting the remarkable works of God, even though God’s favor had seemed less evident in recent years. Resolute, Jacob prepared to go to Egypt. 2 Reaching the Well of the Oath, he offered sacrifices to God. He worried that his family, dazzled by Egypt’s wealth, might settle there permanently and neglect the promised land of Canaan. He feared that if God had not ordained this move, his entire family would be destroyed in Egypt, or he would die without seeing Joseph. These anxieties troubled him as he slept. 3 God appeared in a dream, calling him by name, and Jacob asked who was speaking. God answered, reminding him it was the same God who had guided his ancestors and himself. God recalled how, when Jacob left to Mesopotamia alone, He enabled him to marry well and return with a large family and vast wealth. God promised Jacob and his descendants would continue to thrive, as with Abraham and Isaac. He assured Jacob that this journey was within His plan, and that Jacob would die in Joseph’s arms, with descendants who would grow mighty, returning one day to possess the land He had promised. 4 Heartened by this vision, Jacob journeyed more confidently. He arrived in Egypt with his sons and their families, seventy in total. In earlier times, I was hesitant to list the many names, partly because their pronunciations are difficult, but the total was seventy, excluding Jacob. 5 When Joseph heard his father was coming, he hurried out to meet him at Heroopolis. Jacob nearly fainted from overwhelming joy, but Joseph revived him, though he himself was deeply moved. Joseph advised his father to travel at an easy pace, but he took five of his brothers to announce to Pharaoh their arrival. Pharaoh was pleased, asking Joseph to inform him of his brothers’ occupation so he could let them continue in it. Joseph explained they were skilled shepherds, a practice Egyptians considered lowly, which assured they would live in a separate area, ensuring they could care for their father together and avoid friction with Egyptians, who disliked managing sheep. 6 When Jacob stood before Pharaoh, he blessed the King and prayed for the kingdom’s prosperity. Pharaoh asked how old he was. Learning he was 130, Pharaoh marveled at his longevity, though Jacob said he had not lived as long as his ancestors. Pharaoh offered them to live in Heliopolis, where the King’s shepherds traditionally grazed their flocks. 7 Meanwhile, the famine in Egypt grew worse. The Nile did not rise to its usual height, there was no rain, and people, unprepared, ran out of money. Joseph sold them grain in exchange for their silver first, then their livestock, and finally their small plots of land, until the King owned nearly everything. He moved them to different cities, securing permanent control for Pharaoh, sparing only the lands of the priests. Once the famine ended, Joseph assembled the people by city and returned their lands to them under the condition that they forever pay one-fifth of the produce to the King. The Egyptians rejoiced at reclaiming their farms, now grateful to Joseph, praising Pharaoh all the more. This law of paying a fifth of their harvest endured through the reigns of later Egyptian kings.

1 Jacob lived in Egypt for seventeen years before he became ill and passed away in the presence of his sons. Before dying, he prayed for their prosperity and foretold their future dwellings in Canaan, many years later. He especially praised Joseph, acknowledging Joseph’s generous treatment of his brothers instead of harboring resentment over their wrongs against him, showering them with benefits rarely shown even to benefactors. Jacob then instructed his sons to consider Joseph’s sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, as full heirs, sharing Canaan equally with them. After this, he asked to be buried at Hebron. He died at age 147, no less pious than his ancestors, and rewarded, as they were, for his devotion. Joseph obtained Pharaoh’s permission to carry his father to Hebron, burying him there with great ceremony. Jacob’s other sons at first feared Joseph might now seek revenge for their betrayal, but Joseph convinced them otherwise, ensuring them a prosperous life, and never ceasing his kindness. 2 Joseph passed away at 110 years of age. He was a man of admirable virtue, tempering his power with wisdom and moderation, which brought him great fortune among the Egyptians, despite being a foreigner brought there in dire circumstances. Eventually, his brothers died as well, having lived in peace in Egypt. Their descendants carried their remains back to Hebron, but Joseph’s bones were taken later,⁠a at the Exodus, as he had made them swear to do. What happened to each tribe and how they took possession of Canaan will be shown later, after we explain why they departed Egypt.

1 Over time, the Egyptians became indulgent and lazy, pursuing pleasures and greed. They resented the Hebrews, envying their success and wealth earned through diligence. As the Hebrews thrived, the Egyptians saw their own downfall in the Hebrews’ prosperity and forgot the benefits they had once gained from Joseph, particularly since a new royal family now held power. They treated the Hebrews cruelly, developing many ways to oppress them—forcing them to dig countless canals for the river, build walls for cities, and construct massive banks to contain the river’s flooding. They also compelled them to build pyramids. Through these labors they wore the Hebrews down, teaching them all kinds of mechanical skills, while they toiled for many years. The Egyptians aimed to destroy them with forced labor, while the Hebrews strove to endure these hardships. 2 During this time, the Egyptians found further motivation for eradicating the nation of the Hebrews. A sacred scribe, known for accurately predicting the future, advised Pharaoh that around this period a Hebrew child would be born who would lower the kingdom of Egypt⁠a and raise the Israelites, standing out in virtue and remembered forever. Alarmed by this prophecy, the King commanded that every male Hebrew infant be cast into the river,⁠b ordering the Egyptian midwives who assisted Hebrew mothers to obey this edict on pain of death. This was an extreme affliction for the Hebrews, forced to do away with their sons or face punishment, seeing their entire future extinguished. Yet no one can outwit God’s power, no matter how many cunning devices are devised. For the child, whose birth the scribe had predicted and whose life Pharaoh sought to end, was saved and hidden. The prophet also did not err in predicting this child would elevate the Hebrews and ruin the Egyptians. 3 Amram, a distinguished Hebrew, feared the destruction of his nation through the slaughter of their male children.⁠c His wife was pregnant, and he was at a loss, torn by what to do. Turning to prayer, he appealed to God’s mercy for those who had not violated His commands, seeking their deliverance from suffering and the thwarting of their enemies’ plan. God listened to him and, appearing in a dream, reassured him that He would always reward the devotion of those who upheld His worship. Recalling how He increased Abraham’s descendants from a single man and gave Isaac, whom Abraham once thought impossible, God promised to care for Amram’s people and grant him personal renown. He revealed that the very child threatening Egyptian power would be Amram’s own son. Concealed from those seeking to harm him, the child would later deliver the Hebrews from their afflictions. His memory would endure through all time, among Hebrews and foreigners alike, fulfilling God’s favor to Amram and his offspring. This child would also have a brother who would become a priest, passing that priesthood down to his descendants forever. 4 When Amram awoke, he told his wife Jochebed about this vision. Though it calmed them somewhat, the dream also heightened their vigilance. When the time came, Jochebed gave birth so quietly that the midwives did not detect the delivery. After hiding the infant for three months, Amram, fearing discovery, decided it was safer to entrust the child’s fate to God’s protection than to rely on his own concealment, for fear that both child and parents might be destroyed. He was certain that the same God who had foreordained great things for this baby would keep him safe. They wove a small cradle from river reeds, sealing it with slime to keep out the water, placed the baby inside, and set it afloat, leaving everything to God. The cradle drifted with the current, but Miriam, the child’s sister, stood watch from the bank, observing where the little ark would go. God thus showed that human wisdom is nothing compared to divine will, and how illusions of safety or cunning can fail, while the worst dangers turn to miraculous rescue if God so wills. Indeed, Moses was saved, and those most intent on destroying him eventually provided for him. 5 Thermuthis, the King’s daughter, was walking by the river and noticed the cradle floating. She ordered swimmers to retrieve it, and when they brought it to her, she saw a beautiful, large baby. God had formed Moses with extraordinary beauty and stature so that even those bent on destroying him would be moved to care for him.⁠d Thermuthis sent for a wet nurse, but the baby refused the milk of Egyptian women. Miriam, who had been nearby merely as an onlooker, suggested they seek a Hebrew nurse. Agreeing, Thermuthis instructed her to find such a woman. Miriam brought back her own mother, unnoticed as the infant’s real mother. The baby took her milk willingly, so Thermuthis placed him fully in Jochebed’s care. 6 Thermuthis then named him Moses, explaining that Egyptians call water ‘Mo,’ and that one who is rescued from it is called ‘Uses,’ combining the words into this name. He indeed fulfilled God’s prediction, excelling all Hebrews in courage and resourcefulness. He was the seventh generation from Abraham: Moses, son of Amram, son of Caath, son of Levi, son of Jacob, son of Isaac, son of Abraham. Moses’ mind matured beyond his years, and his learning outstripped that of other children. Even as a toddler, he was unusually tall, and people could not help but stop and gaze at him, astonished by his beauty. People walking by would often turn around to marvel at him. Because of this, Thermuthis resolved to adopt him as her son, having no children of her own. 7 One day, she took him to her father and told him she hoped Moses would one day succeed him if she had no children, a boy sent from the river by divine providence. Delighted, the King playfully placed his own diadem on Moses’ head, but the baby threw it to the ground and stepped on it, an act that seemed an omen for the downfall of Egypt.⁠e The sacred scribe who had predicted that a Hebrew child would humble Egypt leaped up to kill Moses, crying out, ‘Your Majesty! This is the child we feared. If we kill him now, we’ll be safe. See how he tramples your crown!’ However, Thermuthis snatched Moses away, and the King, moved by divine influence, spared him. Thus Moses was raised with great care, and the Hebrews believed their liberation was at hand. The Egyptians, though anxious, refrained from killing him, for there was no heir as clearly favored by prophecy as Moses.

1 Moses, born and raised as described before, reached maturity and showed the Egyptians he was destined to humble them and uplift the Israelites. The opportunity arose when the Ethiopians, neighbors of Egypt, made an incursion into the land, seizing property and provoking the Egyptians, who fought back in fury. Defeated and humiliated, the Egyptians fled until the Ethiopians, emboldened by success and relishing the riches of the land, advanced to Memphis and even as far as the sea, while no Egyptian city could stand against them. Under this dire oppression, the Egyptians turned to oracles and prophecies; God advised them to seek Moses the Hebrew. The King then commanded his daughter to present him, that he might lead the army. She, after making him swear not to harm her, handed him over to the King, believing his help would greatly benefit Egypt. At the same time, she reproached the priests, who once urged killing Moses, but now admitted they needed his aid. 2 So Moses, encouraged by both Thermuthis and the King, gladly took on the role. The sacred scribes of both nations approved: the Egyptians thought he would defeat their enemies yet fall himself in the process, while the Hebrews believed he would free them from bondage. Moses preempted the Ethiopians, leading his army before the enemy realized they were being attacked. He marched overland, not by the river, displaying remarkable insight. The route was infested with serpents—produced in huge numbers there, more venomous and fiercer than in other lands, some emerging unseen from the ground or flying through the air. Moses devised a strategy: he made baskets of sedge and filled them with ibises, which are the fiercest enemies of serpents; they frighten the snakes away, catch them as they flee, and devour them. The ibises are tame in all else but wage unrelenting war against serpents. Having released the ibises to repel the snakes, Moses protected his soldiers and advanced swiftly. Surprising the Ethiopians, he defeated them in battle, crushing their hopes of success. He ravaged their cities and inflicted heavy casualties. Buoyed by this victory, the Egyptian army pressed on, driving the Ethiopians into danger of enslavement or destruction. At last, the Ethiopians withdrew to Saba, their royal city (which Cambyses later called Meroe after his sister), encircled by the Nile and two other rivers, Astapus and Astaboras, forming a secure, island-like stronghold protected by high walls and defensive embankments. Besieging it proved difficult, as the rivers and fortifications made direct assault nearly impossible. Growing impatient, Moses continually urged action, but the enemy refused open battle. Then it happened that Tharbis, the daughter of the Ethiopian King, saw Moses advancing to the walls and fighting with great daring. Admiring both his cunning and valor—recognizing him as the architect of Egypt’s renewed fortunes and her own people’s imminent peril—she fell in love with him. Sending her most trusted servant to propose marriage, she offered to surrender the city if he agreed. He accepted, provided she secured the city’s handover, and swore he would marry her once he took possession. The pact was concluded, and as soon as Moses defeated the Ethiopians, he thanked God, married Tharbis, and led the Egyptians back home. 3 Yet after being saved by Moses, the Egyptians grew hostile toward him, fearing he might use his newfound glory to stir rebellion. They urged the King to kill him, suspecting Moses could topple the throne. The King himself, envious of Moses’ brilliant triumph and anxious about losing power, heeded the priests who incited him to murder. However, Moses learned of their plot and fled secretly, choosing deserts where none would expect him to travel. Without provisions, he pushed on bravely. He eventually arrived at Midian by the Red Sea, so named for one of Abraham’s sons by Keturah, where he rested at a well at noon, exhausted by his long journey and tribulations. There, local custom offered a chance to display his virtue once more. 4 Water was scarce in that region, and shepherds habitually rushed to seize wells before others. Seven daughters of Raguel, a priest of Midian held in high esteem, arrived to water their father’s flocks. Women commonly tended flocks in that land. After they drew enough water into troughs, shepherds drove them away, claiming the well for themselves. Moses refused to watch the women be wronged, so he repelled the shepherds, protecting the young women’s fair share. Grateful for his help, the sisters returned to their father, urging that their rescuer not go unrewarded. Pleased by their request, Raguel asked them to bring Moses to him. After hearing how Moses had assisted his daughters, Raguel admired his character and offered him hospitality. He went on to grant Moses one of his daughters in marriage and made him overseer of his livestock, for in those days the wealth of such peoples lay primarily in their herds.

1 After the Egyptians were delivered by Moses, their hostility toward him grew. They schemed relentlessly, fearing he would use his successes to spark rebellion and overthrow their rule. They pressured the King, who shared those suspicions, fueled by the priests’ warnings and his own jealousy of Moses’ triumph. Moses, learning of their plot, fled quietly, avoiding public roads and braving deserts where none could guess his path, though he had little to eat. Reaching Midian, a city on the Red Sea named for a son of Abraham by Keturah, he sat beside a well, resting from the hardships of his escape. It was noon and not far from the city, which gave him an opportunity, rooted in local custom, to demonstrate his virtue and improve his fortunes. 2 Because water was scarce in that region, shepherds would seize wells first so their flocks would not run short. That day, seven virgin sisters, daughters of Raguel, a priest honored by the local people, came to the well, as they traditionally cared for their father’s flocks. First, they filled the troughs with water. But when shepherds arrived, they drove the sisters away, wanting sole access to the water. Moses, unwilling to let stronger men overpower these women, chased off the shepherds, defending the sisters’ rightful share. Overjoyed by his kindness, they returned to their father, describing the injustice they suffered and the help they received from a stranger, and asked that he be rewarded. Raguel praised his daughters for honoring their benefactor and told them to bring Moses to him. When Moses came, Raguel heard their account, admired Moses’ virtue, and expressed gratitude that the benefactor had found a home with them. He promised that, in return for saving his daughters, Moses would receive their generous hospitality, or even more than he might expect. Thus Raguel made Moses his son-in-law, giving him one of his daughters in marriage and appointing him as guardian of his livestock, for in those days the wealth of these tribes lay in their herds.

1 Moses indeed proved he was born to humble the Egyptians and lift up the Hebrews. The occasion arose when the Ethiopians, neighbors to Egypt, invaded and looted the land. Egypt fought back, but many soldiers were killed or fled in disgrace, prompting the Ethiopians to pursue them vigorously, eventually capturing Memphis and reaching the sea, with no Egyptian city able to resist. In despair, Egyptians turned to their oracles, who said they must call on Moses the Hebrew. Pharaoh recalled how Moses had formerly saved Egypt in war, fighting as though the Egyptians were his own people, yet received no rightful reward. Urged by Thermuthis and the oracles, Pharaoh summoned Moses, granting him command of the troops and hoping he would defeat the Ethiopians or perish in battle. 2 The Egyptians welcomed Moses as their general, believing he would both repel the Ethiopians and rid them of Moses. The Hebrews rejoiced, expecting Moses to free them from bondage. Moses surprised the enemy, traveling by land instead of along the river and clearing the route of venomous serpents by unleashing ibises, whose natural hostility to snakes kept the army safe. The Ethiopians, unprepared, were repeatedly defeated, and Moses retook many cities, finally besieging Saba, the Ethiopian royal city later called Meroe by Cambyses in honor of his sister. Encompassed by the Nile and the rivers Astapus and Astaboras, it formed an island fortified by walls and embankments. The siege was difficult, but Tharbis, daughter of the Ethiopian king, watched Moses leading the siege with great skill and fell in love with him. She offered to surrender the city if he would marry her. He agreed by oath, and once she gave the city over, Moses kept his vow. Having conquered the Ethiopians, he returned in triumph to Egypt, thanking God. 3 Nevertheless, the Egyptians resented Moses’ exploits, fearing he would seize power. The priests stirred Pharaoh’s envy, pushing him to consider killing Moses. Warned of the plot, Moses fled discreetly, crossing remote deserts. At last, he reached Midian near the Red Sea, named after Abraham’s son by Keturah, and paused at a well at midday to rest, offering another chance to show his character. 4 Water was scarce there, and shepherds arrived early to secure wells. Seven daughters of Raguel, a renowned Midianite priest, came to draw water for their father’s flocks. After filling the troughs, they were driven away by shepherds determined to claim the well for themselves. Moses intervened, driving off the men and letting the sisters water their animals. Grateful, they told their father about this stranger’s help. Raguel, appreciating their gratitude, had Moses brought to him. Impressed by his story, Raguel welcomed him, gave him one of his daughters as a wife, and placed him in charge of his livestock. 1 Later, Moses tended Jethro’s flock—Jethro being another name for Raguel—and led the animals near Mount Sinai, the tallest mountain there, reputed as God’s dwelling, where shepherds seldom dared go. Moses saw a striking sight: a thornbush in flames yet unscorched. Approaching in wonder, he was startled to hear a voice calling his name, warning him not to draw closer to that sacred place. The voice revealed Moses was chosen to lead the Hebrews from Egypt and promised him enduring renown. It commanded him to bring them back to worship God at this same mountain. Moses, trembling, marveled at the marvel and listened closely. 2 He questioned how a solitary man of no rank could persuade the Hebrews to abandon their home or compel Pharaoh to release them, since the Egyptians profited by their labor. God assured him of divine backing in word and deed, demonstrating wonders to bolster his faith. First, Moses cast his rod to the ground, and it became a serpent, coiling before turning back into a rod in his hand. Next, at God’s prompting, he placed his right hand on his chest and withdrew it white as chalk, only to see it restored moments later. Finally, God had him pour water on the ground, turning it to blood. Witnessing these miracles, Moses had every reason to trust. 3 God instructed Moses to go boldly into Egypt, promising to liberate the Hebrews and punish the Egyptians for resisting. Moses asked God’s name so he could address Him properly in worship. God shared that sacred name, never before revealed to mortals. From then on, Moses could invoke these signs whenever he prayed for them, but the flaming bush remained the most profound testimony of the divine. Convinced that God would stand with him, Moses felt certain he could rescue his people and exact judgment on their oppressors. 4 Learning the older Pharaoh who sought his life had died, Moses asked Raguel’s leave to return and free his people. Taking his wife Zipporah and their sons, Gersom (so named because Moses was a foreigner there) and Eleazar (so named because, with help from the God of his ancestors, Moses escaped the Egyptians), Moses traveled on. At the frontier, he met his brother Aaron, sent by God. Moses recounted the events on Mount Sinai and God’s commands. As word spread of their arrival, the leaders among the Hebrews went out to meet them. Moses repeated the wonders he had witnessed and, to dispel doubts, performed the signs before them. Their spirits revived, hoping at last for deliverance, believing God had come to save them. 5 Seeing the Hebrews trusted him, Moses approached the new Pharaoh, reminding him that once Moses had led the Egyptians to victory against the Ethiopians and risked his life without proper recompense. He then recounted his recent encounter at Mount Sinai, where God’s voice spoke, granting him the power to work miracles. Moses urged Pharaoh not to resist divine will but to free the Hebrews. 6 Pharaoh, mocking Moses, dismissed his signs as mere illusions, boasting that Egyptian priests could do the same. The priests cast rods that turned into serpents, but Moses, declaring he acted by a power far above mortal tricks, threw down his rod, and it became a serpent that devoured the others and returned to a rod. Even this failed to sway Pharaoh, who accused Moses of cunning deceit. He increased the Hebrews’ burdens, forcing them to gather chaff themselves and produce the same quota of bricks. The people blamed Moses for their harsher fate, yet Moses persevered, trusting God. Once more he asked Pharaoh to let the Hebrews go and sacrifice at Mount Sinai, warning him not to defy the Almighty, but Pharaoh stubbornly refused, soon to learn how dangerous it was to fight against divine authority.

1 When Moses realized Pharaoh, who reigned when he fled, was deceased, he asked Raguel for permission to return to Egypt for the sake of his people. He took Zipporah, Raguel’s daughter, whom he had married, and their children, Gersom and Eleazar. Gersom means he was in a strange land, and Eleazar means that by the help of the God of his ancestors he escaped from the Egyptians. Near the border, Moses was met by his brother Aaron, sent by divine command. Moses told him of the wonders at the mountain and the instructions God had given. As they went on, the leading men among the Hebrews, hearing of their approach, came out to meet them. Moses displayed the signs he had witnessed. When they wavered, he showed them each miracle, giving them confidence of a full deliverance, now that God visibly cared for them. 2 With the Hebrews vowing obedience and fired by a love of freedom, Moses went to the King—who had just recently begun to rule—reminding him of Moses’ service when Egyptians were ravaged by the Ethiopians and how he had risked his life as though for his own people. He recounted his peril, unreturned by any gratitude, and then spoke of what had happened at Mount Sinai, how God commanded him and showed him signs to prove that authority. He urged the King not to doubt or defy God’s plan. 3 Pharaoh mocked Moses’ words, so Moses demonstrated the same signs from Mount Sinai. The King, enraged, labeled him a cunning deserter who fled Egyptian servitude only to return with illusions and feats of magic. He summoned the priests, saying Egyptians, too, understood these arts, that Moses could amaze only the ignorant. The priests threw down their rods, which became serpents. Unmoved, Moses replied, “Your Majesty, I do not belittle Egyptian wisdom, but I say what I do surpasses such arts, because it comes from divine power rather than human trickery.” He cast his rod to the ground, and it became a serpent that circled around and devoured the Egyptians’ rods, then returned to its original form in Moses’ hand. 4 Still unmoved, Pharaoh dismissed Moses’ demonstration as worthless, accusing him of scheming against Egypt. He commanded the chief overseer to increase the Hebrews’ labor, denying them chaff for brick-making so they had to gather it themselves, forcing them to work day and night. Burdened further, the Hebrews blamed Moses for their miseries, yet Moses remained unwavering despite the King’s threats and the people’s complaints, persisting in his resolve to secure their liberty. He visited Pharaoh again, pleading that the Hebrews be allowed to travel to Mount Sinai to sacrifice to God, warning Pharaoh not to obstruct the divine will. Otherwise, he risked punishment so dreadful that all nature, including earth and air, would fight against him. Pharaoh still refused, certain no greater calamity would happen to him, and believing he could withstand any threat from Moses or the Hebrews.

1 But Pharaoh, scorning Moses’ plea, faced terrible plagues. I recount these uniquely severe afflictions so all may see Moses unfailingly delivered what he foretold, and so we learn not to provoke God, whose anger avenges wrongdoing. First, at God’s command, Egypt’s river flowed with blood, rendering it undrinkable. Whoever tried it experienced intense pain and torment. No other spring was available. Yet for the Hebrews, the water remained clear. Alarmed, Pharaoh agreed to let the Hebrews depart, but when that plague ceased, he changed his mind again, refusing their freedom. 2 Seeing Pharaoh’s ingratitude, God inflicted a second plague: frogs overran the land, spoiling the soil and saturating the rivers. Those who drew water found it fouled by the frogs, alive and dead, corrupting their tools, food, and beds with an unbearable stench. Overwhelmed, Pharaoh again allowed the Hebrews to leave, but when the frogs vanished, he revoked their liberty, as if eager to invite further suffering. 3 A third plague soon followed: hordes of lice sprang from the Egyptians’ own bodies, and because of their wickedness, they were past any remedy of ointments or washing.⁠a Pharaoh, fearful of his people’s downfall, once more granted the Hebrews permission to go. But when the plague ended, he demanded they leave their wives and children behind, provoking God further, as if the Almighty could be deceived. Consequently, Egypt was infested with swarms of new pestilential creatures not seen before, destroying people and farmland alike. Anything spared by the creatures fell to a deadly disease that struck humans too. 4 Pharaoh still clung to his demands that children remain, so God responded with even harsher calamities. Boils erupted on Egyptian bodies, many dying in agony. Unyielding, Pharaoh then faced destructive hail unlike any Egypt had ever witnessed, breaking fruit-laden branches. After that, locusts consumed any remaining crops, robbing Egyptians of future harvests. 5 One might expect such disasters to awaken anyone, even if merely foolish, but Pharaoh’s stubborn wickedness worsened. He proposed letting the men, women, and children go if they left their livestock behind, since Egyptian herds were ruined. Moses insisted this was unjust, for the Israelites needed those animals for sacrifice. While Pharaoh delayed, a dark, suffocating gloom enveloped Egypt for three days, causing many deaths. Yet Pharaoh hardened himself again, threatening Moses with death if he returned. Moses foretold that Pharaoh and his officials would soon beg for the Hebrews to leave, then left him. 6 God declared one final plague would compel Pharaoh’s submission and told Moses to order the Hebrews to prepare a sacrifice. On the tenth day of Xanthicus (Pharmuthi to Egyptians, Nisan to Hebrews), they made ready. On the fourteenth day, they offered the sacrifice, marked their doorposts with its blood using hyssop, and ate the lamb, burning any leftovers before dawn, for they were to depart. Thus we continue to observe this sacrifice, calling it ‘Pascha,’ meaning ‘Passover,’ in remembrance of how God spared us and struck the Egyptians. That night, the firstborn of Egypt died in great numbers, prompting desperate Egyptians near the palace to plead with Pharaoh to let the Hebrews go. Alarmed, Pharaoh summoned Moses and urged them to leave, hoping to end Egypt’s anguish. Egyptians also offered gifts—some to hasten their departure, others from respect for neighbors and prior friendships.

1 Pharaoh’s stubbornness led to horrific plagues. First, the river turned to blood at God’s word, undrinkable and painfully harmful to any who tried it. No alternative water sources existed. The Hebrews, however, still found the water fresh. Shaken, Pharaoh relented briefly, allowing the Hebrews to depart, but withdrew his permission once the plague ended, inviting its return. 2 Since Pharaoh showed no gratitude, God sent a second plague of frogs that tainted the land, water, food, and even beds. The stench of living and dead frogs overwhelmed Egypt. Terrified, Pharaoh again relented, but when the frogs disappeared, he hardened his heart once more, defying God. 3 Next came lice, infesting Egyptians without end, beyond the relief of any remedy. Desperate, Pharaoh said the Hebrews could leave, but then insisted they leave their children behind, incurring further divine judgment. Countless monstrous creatures invaded, destroying what they touched, and whatever escaped these was struck by a dire illness that also ravaged people. 4 Still defiant, Pharaoh allowed the men to depart but withheld consent for wives and children. God responded with another wave of calamities. The Egyptians’ flesh erupted in boils, claiming many lives. Undeterred, Pharaoh faced a devastating hailstorm unknown in that climate, shattering fruit-bearing trees. Locusts followed, devouring everything left, leaving no hope for future harvests. 5 One would think these plagues would make Pharaoh yield, but his wickedness only grew. He allowed the men, women, and children to leave yet demanded their livestock remain, incurring God’s anger once again. Darkness darker than night, suffocating and terrifying, enveloped Egypt for three days, killing many. When the darkness lifted, Pharaoh threatened Moses with death if he persisted, so Moses declared that soon Pharaoh himself would beg them to go, and left. 6 Deciding one more plague would settle matters, God commanded Moses to have the Hebrews ready a sacrifice. On the tenth day of Xanthicus—Pharmuthi for Egyptians, Nisan for Hebrews—they prepared, and on the fourteenth they offered the sacrifice, marking their homes with blood from hyssop and roasting the lamb. Leftovers were burned before morning. We still celebrate this Passover sacrifice in memory of how God spared the Hebrews and struck the Egyptians instead. That night, every Egyptian firstborn died, forcing Pharaoh, in dread of more tragedy, to call Moses and drive them out. The Egyptians gave gifts—some for goodwill, others simply to hasten their departure. 1 The Hebrews departed amid Egypt’s wailing, lamenting the oppression that brought such calamities. They traveled to Letopolis, which stood empty then, though Babylon would later be built there after Cambyses devastated Egypt. On the third day they reached Baalzephon near the Red Sea, lacking food, sustained by unleavened bread baked under mild heat for thirty days, rationed from what they carried out of Egypt. We commemorate that hardship with an eight-day Feast of Unleavened Bread. Altogether, their number was vast, but the men of fighting age counted six hundred thousand. 2 They left on the fifteenth day of the lunar month in Xanthicus, 430 years after their ancestor Abraham arrived in Canaan, though just 215 years had passed since Jacob brought his family to Egypt. Moses was eighty years old, Aaron eighty-three. They took Joseph’s bones, as he had made them promise to do. 3 Soon, the Egyptians regretted releasing them, suspecting Moses had tricked them. They armed themselves and pursued, aiming to recapture or destroy the unarmed Hebrews, exhausted by travel. Overtaking them at a spot walled by mountains and the sea, the Egyptians deployed six hundred chariots, fifty thousand horsemen, and two hundred thousand infantry, blocking every escape route, trapping the Hebrews against impassable terrain and the water. 4 Confined between cliffs and the sea, out of provisions and without weapons, the Hebrews faced a grim fate. Overcome by fear, they angrily confronted Moses, forgetting the miracles that had freed them. Some even talked of stoning him. Many wanted to surrender. Women and children wailed in despair, preparing for death. 5 Moses, steadfast amid their anger, rested in God’s promise and declared that the God who delivered them from Egypt would rescue them again. He reminded them that even human allies who helped in the past earn ongoing trust, so how much more should they trust God who had already done such wonders. He assured them that God’s might was limitless, able to flatten mountains or dry the sea if He chose. He urged them not to fear the Egyptians or abandon hope, for God could confound their pursuers and provide deliverance yet again.

1 Having spoken, Moses led them closer to the sea, where the Egyptians, tired from the chase, decided to wait until morning to attack. Standing by the shore, Moses lifted his rod and prayed for God’s intervention: “Lord, no human power can save us now. Only Your might can deliver us. We look to You, asking for any path You grant, whether it be through splitting this sea, opening a pass through the mountains, or even bearing us through the air. Reveal Your power, so these despairing people may see there is still hope in You.” 2 Then Moses struck the sea with his rod, and the waters parted, leaving a dry lane. Moses entered first, urging the Hebrews forward. Encouraged by this miraculous way, they hurried across, filled with amazement that God had created a road through the sea for them. 3 The Egyptians at first thought the Hebrews insane for entering the sea, but when they saw them pass unharmed, they pursued, trusting the path would stay open for them too. However, that safe route was meant for the Hebrews alone and not their enemies. Once the Egyptians were in the midst of it, the waves, driven by fierce winds, rushed back. Torrential rain, thunder, lightning, and hail fell upon them, and a dreadful darkness enveloped them, so not a single Egyptian survived. None returned to tell of the catastrophe. 4 At last free, the Hebrews rejoiced, singing songs of gratitude through the night, for their oppressors were destroyed and they knew they had found favor with God. Moses composed a hymn of thanksgiving in verse, as preserved in our holy texts. Though these events are extraordinary, similar occurrences have been attributed to divine or natural forces in other traditions too—some say the Pamphylian Sea parted for Alexander of Macedonia. Whether one believes these stories or not is a matter of individual judgment. 5 The next day, Moses gathered weapons washed ashore for the Hebrews to use, convinced this also was God’s providence so they would not remain defenseless.⁠a Armed with these, he led them toward Mount Sinai to offer sacrifices and thanks to God, fulfilling the command given to him.