Antiquities of the Jews, Book 1

1 In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. But when the earth was not visible, covered with thick darkness, and a wind moved upon its surface, God commanded that there should be light: and when that was made, he considered the whole mass, and separated the light and the darkness; and the name he gave to one was night, and the other he called day: and he named the beginning of light, and the time of rest, the evening and the morning. And this was indeed the first day. But Moses said it was one day; the cause of which I am able to give even now; but because I have promised to give such reasons for all things in a treatise by itself, I will put off its exposition until that time. After this, on the second day, he placed the heavens over the whole world, and separated them from the other parts; and he determined it should stand by itself. He also placed a crystalline layer around it; and put it together in a way suited to the earth; and fitted it for giving moisture and rain, and for providing the advantage of dew. On the third day he appointed the dry land to appear, with the sea itself around it. And on the very same day he made the plants and the seeds spring out of the earth. On the fourth day he adorned the heavens with the sun, the moon, and the other stars; and appointed them their motions and courses: so that the changes of the seasons might be clearly signified. And on the fifth day he produced the living creatures, both those that swim and those that fly; the former in the sea, the latter in the air. He also arranged them for society and procreation so their kinds would increase and multiply. On the sixth day he created the four-footed beasts, and made them male and female. On the same day he also formed man. Accordingly, Moses says that in exactly six days the world, and all that is in it, was made. And that the seventh day was a rest, and a release from the labor of such operations. That is why we celebrate a Rest from our labors on that day, and call it the Sabbath: which word denotes Rest in the Hebrew language. 2 Moreover Moses, after the seventh day was over, begins to speak philosophically; and concerning the formation of man says this: that God took dust from the ground, and formed man, and placed in him a spirit and a soul. This man was called Adam: which in the Hebrew language signifies one who is red; because he was formed out of red earth combined together, for that kind is virgin and true earth. God also presented the living creatures, when he had made them, according to their kinds, both male and female, to Adam, and gave them those names by which they are still called. But when he saw that Adam had no female companion—no companionship, for no female companion had been created—and that he wondered at the other animals that were male and female, he put him to sleep, and took away one of his ribs, and from it formed the woman. Then Adam recognized her when she was brought to him, and acknowledged that she was made out of himself. Now a woman is called in the Hebrew language Issa, but the name of this woman was Eve, which signifies the Mother of all living. 3 Moses says further that God planted a paradise in the east, flourishing with all kinds of trees; and that among them was the Tree of Life, and another of Knowledge, by which one was to learn what was Good and what was Evil. And that when he brought Adam and his wife into this garden, he commanded them to take care of the plants. Now the garden was watered by one river, which ran around the whole earth, and was divided into four parts. And Phison, which denotes a Multitude, runs into India, and empties into the sea; and is called Ganges by the Greeks. Euphrates also, as well as Tigris, flows down into the Red Sea. Now the name Euphrates, or Phrath, denotes either a Dispersion or a Flower; by Tigris or Diglath is meant what is swift and narrow; and Geon runs through Egypt, and means what arises from the East, which the Greeks call Nile. 4 God therefore commanded that Adam and his wife could eat from all the rest of the plants, but should avoid the Tree of Knowledge; and foretold that if they touched it, it would lead to their destruction. But while all the living creatures had one language at that time, the serpent, which then lived together with Adam and his wife, showed an envious disposition⁠a at his assumption of their living happily and in obedience to God’s commands. And thinking that if they disobeyed them, they would fall into misery, he persuaded the woman, out of a malicious intention, to taste the Tree of Knowledge, telling them that in that tree was the Knowledge of Good and Evil; and that when they obtained it, they would lead a happy life, indeed a life not inferior to that of a God. In this way he overcame the woman and persuaded her to disregard God’s command. Now when she had tasted that tree, and was pleased with its fruit, she persuaded Adam to eat of it also. Then they realized that they were naked before one another; and being ashamed to appear like this in public, they invented a covering for themselves, for the tree sharpened their understanding. They covered themselves with fig leaves, and, tying them in front from modesty, believed they were happier than before, because they had discovered what they lacked. But when God came into the garden, Adam, who had previously come and spoken with him, being aware of his wrongdoing, hid himself. This behavior surprised God, and he asked about the cause of his actions, and why he, who had once delighted in their conversations, now avoided it. When Adam offered no answer, knowing he had disobeyed God’s command, God said, “I had already decided how you both might live a happy life, without affliction, worry, or suffering, and that everything that would give you pleasure and delight would grow by my providence, without your labor and toil, which would soon bring old age, and death would not be far off. But now you have misused my goodwill and disobeyed my commands. Your silence is not a sign of virtue, but of guilt.” However, Adam excused his sin and begged God not to be angry with him, blaming his wife, saying she deceived him and so he became a wrongdoer. She in turn blamed the serpent. But God punished Adam because he weakly followed his wife’s advice, and said that the ground would no longer automatically give up its produce, but only by hard work. It would yield some fruits but keep others back. Eve he made subject to the pains of childbirth and the difficulties of childbearing, because she had coaxed Adam with the same arguments the serpent used on her, thus placing him in a tragic state. He also removed the serpent’s ability to speak, because of its malicious intent toward Adam. In addition, he placed venom under the serpent’s tongue and made it humanity’s enemy, commanding that people strike at its head, where its deadly designs lay, and where it was easiest to avenge themselves on it. And after God gave these punishments, he removed Adam and Eve from the garden to another place.

1 Adam and Eve had two sons: the older was named Cain (which, when interpreted, means a Possession). The younger was Abel (which means Sorrow). They also had daughters. Now the two brothers had different inclinations: for Abel, the younger, loved righteousness and believed God was present in all his actions; he surpassed others in virtue and worked as a shepherd. But Cain was not only very wicked in other respects, but was entirely focused on acquiring things; he first devised the idea of plowing the ground. He killed his brother on the following occasion. They resolved to sacrifice to God. Cain brought the fruits of the earth and his farming; Abel brought milk and the first fruits of his flock. But God was more delighted with the latter offering, since he was honored with what grew by itself, rather than by what was acquired through a greedy man’s forcing of the ground. Because of this, Cain grew very angry that God preferred Abel’s gift over his, and he murdered his brother, hiding the corpse, thinking he could avoid detection. But God, who knew what was done, came to Cain and asked what became of his brother, since He had not seen him for many days, whereas at other times He had noticed them together. Cain, unsure of what answer to give, said at first that he himself was at a loss about his brother’s disappearance. But when God pressed him intensely, resolving to discover what had happened, Cain replied that he was not his brother’s keeper, and he did not watch everything he did. But God confronted Cain as his brother’s murderer and said, “I am amazed that you do not know what became of the man you yourself destroyed.” Therefore, God did not bring the full punishment on him, due to his sacrifice and his prayer to not be too harsh in his anger, but declared Cain accursed, threatening his descendants even to the seventh generation. He also banished him, with his wife, from that land. And when Cain was afraid that, wandering about, he might be attacked by wild beasts and so perish, God told him not to feel such hopeless dread, but to travel all over the earth without fear of harm from beasts, placing a mark on him that he might be recognizable and commanding him to depart. 2 Once Cain had traveled through many lands, he built a city named Nod (from the name of the place) with his wife and lived in it. He had children there. But he did not make use of his punishment so as to reform, but to become even more wicked. For his only aim was bodily pleasure and to harm his neighbors in the process. He increased his family’s wealth through robbery and violence, convincing his acquaintances to seek pleasure and loot by banditry, and became a leader of men in wicked practices. He also introduced a great change in humanity’s simpler lifestyle, being the originator of measures and weights. Whereas before, people had lived innocently and with generosity, knowing nothing of such arts, he made life cunning and treacherous. He was the first to set boundaries around lands, build a city, fortify it with walls, and force his family to gather there. He named that city Enoch, after his oldest son Enoch. Jared was Enoch’s son, and his son was Malaliel, whose son was Mathusela, father of Lamech. Lamech took two wives, Silla and Ada, and had seventy-seven children. From Ada’s family came Jabel, who built tents and loved pastoral life; and Jubal, who devoted himself to music, inventing the psaltery and harp. From Silla’s side came Tubal, who surpassed all in strength and gained great renown for military achievements, using his skill to please the body; he was the first to forge brass. Lamech also had a daughter named Naamah. And he was so skilled in prophecy that he knew punishment awaited him for Cain’s murdering his brother; he revealed this to his wives. It happened that, while Adam was alive, Cain’s descendants became extremely evil, each generation becoming more so than the previous. They were incurable in war and fervent in robbery, quick to murder and bold in their unrestrained behaviors, committing injustice and wrong for gain. 3 Meanwhile, Adam, the first man formed from the earth (for now our account must center on him), after Abel was killed and Cain had fled because of the murder, wished for offspring, longing deeply for children, as he was already two hundred and thirty years old; afterward he lived seven hundred more years and then died. Indeed he had many children, but Seth was specially singled out. As for the rest naming them would be tedious: I will therefore only try to describe those descended from Seth. Now this Seth, when he grew up and reached the age at which he could distinguish what was good, became a virtuous man: and he himself had an excellent character and left children who imitated his virtues. All of them proved to have good dispositions. They also lived in the same country without disputes, happily and without misfortunes, until they died. They also discovered that branch of wisdom dealing with the heavenly bodies and their patterns. To ensure their discoveries wouldn’t vanish before they were fully known—since Adam had predicted that the world would at one time be destroyed by fire and at another time by an overabundance of water—they erected two pillars: one of brick, the other of stone. They engraved their findings on both, so that if the pillar of brick should be destroyed by the flood, the pillar of stone would remain and present these discoveries to humanity, as well as let people know that a second pillar, of brick, had once stood. To this day, one remains in the land of Siriad.

1 This lineage of Seth initially regarded God as the Master of the universe and held virtue in high esteem for seven generations; but over time they were corrupted and abandoned the conduct of their ancestors, neglecting the reverence for God that was required of them, and failing to be just to one another. In place of the devotion they once showed, they embraced double the degree of wrongdoing, causing God to become their adversary. For many of God’s angels joined with women and had sons who proved to be arrogant, unjust, and dismissive of all that was good, because of their confidence in their strength.⁠a According to tradition, their actions resembled those whom the Greeks call Giants. However, Noah was deeply troubled by their behavior, and, dissatisfied with their deeds, he tried to persuade them to change their intentions and lifestyles for the better.⁠b But seeing they did not obey and were enslaved by their wicked appetites, he feared they might murder him, together with his wife, children, and their spouses, so he left that land. 2 Now God loved this man for his righteousness, but He not only condemned the others for their wickedness, He decided to eliminate the entire human race and create another, free from ungodliness. And cutting short their lifespans—reducing them to one hundred and twenty years—He turned the land into sea, destroying every one of them. Noah alone was saved, as God suggested a way to deliver him: namely, that he should build an Ark with four levels, three hundred cubits long, fifty cubits wide, and thirty cubits high. He entered with his wife, sons, and their wives, bringing provisions and including in the Ark all sorts of living creatures—male and female, by twos, as well as by sevens for others—so their kinds would survive. The Ark’s walls were solid, its roof secure, and it was braced with crossbeams so it wouldn’t be swamped or overturned by the rushing waters. Thus Noah was saved, being the tenth from Adam, descended through Lamech, Mathusala, Enoch, Jared, Malaleel, Cainan, Enos, Seth, and finally Adam. 3 This catastrophe happened in the six hundredth year of Noah’s life , in the second month, called by the Macedonians Dius ; but by the Hebrews Marhesvan : for this was how they arranged their year in Egypt. But Moses designated Nisan , which is the same with Xanthicus , as the first month, for their festivals; because he brought them out of Egypt in that month. So this month began the year for all the festivals they observed in God’s honour: although he preserved the original order of the months for buying, selling, and other ordinary affairs. Now he says that this flood began on the twenty-seventh day of the previously mentioned month: and this was two thousand six hundred and fifty-six years from Adam, the first man. This is noted in our sacred writings, by those who lived then, who recorded accurately the births and deaths of distinguished men. 4 Indeed Seth was born when Adam was in his two hundred and thirtieth year, and Adam lived nine hundred and thirty years. Seth fathered Enos in his two hundred and fifth year; Enos lived nine hundred and twelve years, and at his death passed the rule to Cainan, his son, whom he had in his one hundred and ninetieth year. Enos lived nine hundred and five years. Cainan, having lived nine hundred and ten years, fathered Malaleel in his one hundred and seventieth year. Malaleel, living eight hundred ninety-five years, died, leaving his son Jared, whom he fathered at his one hundred and sixty-fifth year. Jared lived nine hundred and sixty-two years, then his son Enoch succeeded him, born when Jared was one hundred and sixty-two. Enoch, living three hundred and sixty-five years, departed and went to God, and so they didn’t record his death. Mathusala, Enoch’s son (born when Enoch was one hundred and sixty-five), fathered Lamech when he was one hundred and eighty-seven, and when Mathusala had reigned nine hundred and sixty-nine years, he died and passed leadership to Lamech. Lamech, who reigned seven hundred and seventy-seven years, appointed his son Noah as leader; Noah was born to Lamech when he was one hundred and eighty-two, and reigned nine hundred and fifty years. These years added together give the total we have given. But no one should wonder about the deaths of these men, for they spanned their lives along with their children and grandchildren. Rather, they should consider only their births. 5 When God gave the sign and it started to rain, the rain fell for an unbroken forty days, rising fifteen cubits above the ground, leaving nowhere to flee. Even after the downpour stopped, the waters only started receding after one hundred and fifty days, on the seventeenth day of the seventh month, and then only gradually. Eventually the Ark settled atop a mountain in Armenia. When Noah realized this, he opened it, and, seeing a little part of the land uncovered, he stayed put, with renewed hope of rescue. But some days later, with the waters lowered further, he released a raven, wishing to see if some other land had emerged and if it was safe to leave the Ark. The raven, finding the land still flooded, returned. Seven days after that, he sent out a dove to gauge the land’s state, and it returned with mud and an olive branch. By this Noah knew the earth was clearing from the flood. So after waiting another seven days, he freed all the living creatures, and along with his family, left the Ark. He then sacrificed to God and feasted with his companions. However, Armenians call the place Apobaterion, the Place of Descent, and say that remnants of the Ark are shown there by the locals to this day. 6 All the writers of the Barbarian histories reference this Flood and Ark. Among them is Berosus the Chaldean, who, recounting the Flood, says, “It is said there is still part of the ship in Armenia, on the Cordyæan mountains; some people even carry away pieces of the bitumen, chiefly used as charms to ward off evil.” Likewise, Hieronymus the Egyptian, who wrote the Phoenician Antiquities, Mnaseas, and many others mention it. Nicolaus of Damascus, in his ninety-sixth book, makes special mention when he writes, “There is a large mountain in Armenia, over Minyas, called Baris. Numerous people escaped the Flood there, and one who traveled in an Ark came ashore on the peak. Remains of the timber persisted for a long time. It might be the man Moses, the Jewish Legislator, wrote about.” 7 But Noah feared God might choose to flood the earth again, so he offered burnt sacrifices and prayed that nature would continue in its established orderly course, and that He would never again bring such a massive calamity, one that could annihilate every living thing; that though He had punished the wicked, He would in His kindness spare the rest, those deemed fit to survive such terrible destruction. Otherwise, the survivors would be more miserable than those destroyed, facing the dread from the first flood only to be wiped out by a second. He implored God to accept his offering, to grant that the earth never again suffer like that, that people might work it happily and build cities and live well, and not lack any blessings they enjoyed before the Flood, including the lifespans of the ancient folk. 8 When Noah finished these requests, God, who loved him for his righteousness, granted him what he asked, saying it was not He who had prompted the world’s ruin but that people’s own vices brought upon them that vengeance; that if He had meant to destroy humanity, He wouldn’t have allowed them life from the start, for it would be wiser not to create them than to destroy them after creation. Yet their affronts to His holiness forced Him to bring punishment. Even so, He would not now bring such punishment anymore, especially in answer to Noah’s prayers. If He ever sent torrents of rain more than usual, Noah should not fear the rainfall’s volume, for the water would not again drown the earth. However, He commanded him not to murder anyone and to punish those who committed homicide. He gave them freedom to use every living creature for their needs, for He made them lords over land animals, fish, and birds of the air—yet they must not consume the blood, for that carries life. As a sign that He had laid aside His anger, He designated His bow in the sky, meaning the rainbow, for they believed the rainbow was God’s bow. Then God left him. 9 After living three hundred and fifty years after the Flood, Noah died, having lived a total of nine hundred and fifty years. No one should, upon seeing our current shorter lifespans, disbelieve that the ancients lived so long, or argue from our own brief lives that they never could; for those men were beloved of God, molded by God Himself, and their diet was more conducive to longevity. Also God granted them extended years because of their virtue and because it took that many years to accomplish their astronomical and geometric insights, requiring over six hundred years for a Great Year cycle. I cite as witnesses the authors of Antiquities among the Greeks and Barbarians. Manetho, who wrote the Egyptian history; Berossus, who studied the Chaldean records; Mochus, Hestiæus, Hieronymus the Egyptian, and those who composed the Phoenician history, all testify similarly. Hesiod, Hecatæus, Hellanicus, Acusilaus, Ephorus, and Nicolaus also say the ancients lived a thousand years. But for these matters, every person should weigh them as they wish. 20

1 Now Noah’s three sons, Shem, Japhet, and Ham, born a hundred years before the Flood, were the first to descend from the mountains into the plains, settling there and persuading others, who feared the lower lands because of the Flood, to join them. The plain where they initially lived was called Shinar. God then told them to disperse and send out colonies, so the earth would be fully populated and to prevent internal strife, with many people crowded in one place. But they didn’t listen, and so encountered trouble, learning firsthand they had sinned by disobeying. When they prospered in youth, God commanded them again to form colonies, but they imagined their success was due to their own power rather than to God’s grace, and so again disobeyed, suspecting the call to disperse was so they could be more readily oppressed. 2 It was Nimrod, Ham’s grandson through Noah, a bold man of great physical strength, who convinced them to rebel against God, urging them to attribute their happiness to their own courage rather than to God. Gradually he converted their government into tyranny, the only way he could turn men from reverence for God, bringing them into constant dependence on his power.⁠a He also said he would seek revenge on God if He tried again to flood the world; by building a tower too high for the waters to reach and thus avenging their ancestors. 3 The masses were eager to follow Nimrod’s plan, viewing it as cowardly to submit to God. They began constructing a tower, devoting great effort without any slack, and because so many hands were employed, it rose to an incredible height quickly. Its width was enormous, its construction solid, so that to the eye its height seemed less than it truly was. They used burnt brick bonded with bitumen mortar, making it waterproof. When God saw their irrational behavior, He did not choose to destroy them entirely, for they hadn’t become wiser from the punishment of the previous sinners, but caused chaos among them by creating many different languages so they could no longer understand one another. The site of the tower is now called Babylon, which in Hebrew means Confusion, since they confused a previously common language. The Sibyll speaks of this tower and the chaos of language: “When all men spoke one language, some began a giant tower, as if they would reach heaven. But the gods sent storms and toppled it, gifting each person a separate language, and the city took the name Babylon.” Hestiæus, speaking of Shinar in Babylonia, says, “Certain priests who survived carried off the sacred vessels of Jupiter Enyalius, going to Shinar of Babylonia.”

1 From there they scattered everywhere, due to their differing languages, each colony occupying the land they discovered, led to it by God, so that the entire continent, inland and coastal, was filled with them. Some even crossed the sea in ships and inhabited islands. Many nations still keep the names given by their original founders, though some have lost them, and others changed them to be more intelligible to locals. The Greeks caused much of this renaming, since in later times, after growing in power, they claimed antiquity for themselves, adopting new names with Greek resonance, and establishing forms of government they said were from their own heritage.

1 The grandchildren of Noah named the nations in honor of themselves. Japhet, Noah’s son, had seven sons. They settled from the Taurus and Amanus mountains across Asia to the Tanais River, and from Europe to Cadiz, naming the nations after themselves. Gomer founded those called Galatians (previously Gomerites); Magog founded the Magogites, known by the Greeks as Scythians. Javan and Madai, Japhet’s sons: from Madai came the Madeans (Medes among the Greeks); from Javan, Ionia and all the Greeks descend. Thobel founded the Thobelites (Iberes), and Mosoch the Mosocheni (now Cappadocians). A trace of that ancient name still survives in their city Mazaca. Thiras ruled the Thirasians, who the Greeks changed to Thracians. These were the nations of Japhet. Gomer had three sons: Aschanax founded the Aschanaxians (now called Rheginians by the Greeks), Riphath founded the Ripheans (now the Paphlagonians), Thrugramma the Thrugrammeans (called Phrygians by the Greeks). Javan’s three sons: Elisa fathered the Elisians (now the Æolians), Tharsus ruled the Tharsians; Cilicia was once called Tharsus, proved by its most famous city, Tarsus, with Tau switched for Theta. Cethimus possessed the island Cethima, now Cyprus, and because of that, the Hebrews call all islands and most coastal regions Cethim; indeed, a Cyprian city known to the Greeks as Citius preserves the name of Cethim. These were the children and grandchildren of Japhet. I have explained these names following Greek pronunciation for my readers; for in the Hebrew language they are spoken differently, yet preserve similar endings. For instance, the name Noeus here is Noah there, holding the same final sound. 2 Ham’s descendants occupied the land from Syria and Amanus and the mountains of Libanus to the ocean, holding coastal territories. Some names are lost, some altered, some remain the same. Of Ham’s four sons, the name of Chus is still evident; for the Ethiopians, over whom he ruled, are even now called Chusites by themselves and all in Asia. Mesraim’s name is also retained, for we who live in this country call Egypt Mestre, and Egyptians Mestreans. Phut founded Libya and called the people Phutites. A river in the land of the Moors bears that name, and the major Greek historians mention both the river Phut and the adjoining country. However, the name was changed later, taking after Lybyos, one of Mesraim’s sons; how it came to be called Africa we will soon discuss. Canaan, Ham’s fourth son, held the land now named Judea, and named it Canaan after himself. Canaan’s children were Sabas, Evilas, Sabathes, Sabactas, Ragmus; Sabas fathered the Sabeans, Evilas the Evileans (Getuli), Sabathes the Sabathens (called Astaborans by the Greeks), Sabactas the Sabactens, Ragmus the Ragmeans. Ragmus had two sons: Judadas, who founded the Judadeans, a western Ethiopian people, and Sabas, father of the Sabeans. But Nimrod, Chus’s son, stayed and ruled in Babylon, as stated earlier. Mesraim’s eight children possessed the land from Gaza to Egypt; but the entire region is named after only one, the Philistim (Palestine by Greek usage). Of the others—Ludieim, Enemim, Labim (in Libya), Nedim, Phethrosim, Chesloim, Cephthorim—we have nothing beyond their names, for they were destroyed in the Ethiopian War, which we will describe. Canaan’s sons were these: Sidonius founded Sidon (called by the Greeks Sidon), Amathus ruled Amathine (still called Amathe by inhabitants, renamed Epiphania by the Macedonians in honor of one of his descendants), Arudeus ruled the island Aradus, Arucas held Arce in Libanus. As for the seven others—Chetteus, Jebuseus, Amorreus, Gergeseus, Eudeus, Sineus, Samareus—nothing is recorded but their names, for the Hebrews destroyed their cities, and we will explain their ruin later. 3 After the Flood, Noah began to cultivate the earth. When its fruits ripened, he produced wine and offered sacrifice, feasting and becoming intoxicated, then falling asleep uncovered. His youngest son, seeing him, ridiculed him, displaying him to his brothers, while they respectfully covered their father’s nakedness. When Noah realized what had happened, he prayed for prosperity for his other sons; but for Ham, he did not curse him (being near in blood) but cursed his line, punishing Canaan. So when the rest escaped this curse, God afflicted it on Canaan’s descendants; we will say more about this soon. 4 Shem, Noah’s third son, had five sons, who inhabited the land stretching from the Euphrates to the Indian Ocean. Elam’s descendants were the Elamites (the ancestors of the Persians). Ashur settled at the city Nineveh and named his people Assyrians, who became the most fortunate nation. Arphaxad’s people were the Arphaxadites (Chaldeans). Aram’s were the Aramites (Syrians to the Greeks). Laud fathered the Laudites (Lydians). Aram’s four sons were Uz (ruling Trachonitis and Damascus, between Palestine and Celesyria), Ul (Armenia), Gather (Bactrians), and Mesa (the Mesaneans, now Charax Spasini). Sala was Arphaxad’s son, and his son was Heber, from whom the Jews derive the name Hebrews. Heber had Joctan and Phaleg, the latter so named because he was born at the scattering of nations—Phaleg meaning division in Hebrew. Joctan’s sons were Elmodad, Saleph, Asermoth, Jera, Adoram, Aizel, Decla, Ebal, Abimael, Sabeus, Ophir, Euilat, Jobab. They settled from Cophen, an Indian river, in part of Aria next to it. Enough of Shem’s line. 5 Now we come to the Hebrews. Phaleg’s son was Ragau; Ragau’s son was Serug; Serug’s son was Nahor; and Nahor’s son was Terah, father of Abraham, making Abraham the tenth from Noah, born in the two hundred and ninety-second year after the Flood. Terah had Abraham at age seventy; Nahor fathered Haran at one hundred and twenty; Haran was fathered by Nahor when Nahor was born to Serug at one hundred and thirty-two; Serug was born to Ragau at one hundred and thirty; Ragau to Phaleg at one hundred and thirty-four; Phaleg to Heber at one hundred and thirty; Heber to Sala at one hundred and thirty; Sala to Arphaxad at one hundred and thirty-five, Arphaxad to Shem (twelve years after the Flood), Shem being Noah’s son. Now Abraham had two brothers, Nahor and Haran. Haran had a son Lot, and daughters Sarai and Milcha, but died in Ur of the Chaldeans, where his monument is still shown. Nahor married Milcha, and Abraham married Sarai. Terah, grieving over Haran’s death, moved from Chaldea to Haran in Mesopotamia, where he died at age two hundred and five. For life was already declining in length step by step, until Moses’ day (after whom it did not exceed one hundred and twenty, Moses living exactly that long). Nahor by Milcha had eight sons: Uz, Buz, Kemuel, Chesed, Azau, Pheldas, Jadelph, and Bethuel. Reuma, his concubine, bore Teba, Gaam, Tachas, Maaca. Bethuel had Rebecca and Laban.

1 Abraham, having no son of his own, adopted Lot, the son of his brother Haran and brother of his wife Sarah, and he left the land of Chaldea at age seventy-five, going to Canaan at God’s command, remaining there himself and leaving it to his descendants. He was a person of exceptional insight, skilled at understanding everything, able to convince his listeners, and accurate in his opinions. For this reason he was the first to champion higher concepts of virtue than others and chose to reform and correct the widespread notions about God that people held then. He was the first to boldly declare there was only one God, the Creator of the universe,⁠a arguing that since these other bodies do not maintain a consistent cycle of their own accord, they must be governed by the command of a single Ruler, to whom we rightly offer our thanks and worship. Because of these doctrines, the Chaldeans and Mesopotamians stirred up trouble against him, so he resolved to leave that region, and, with God’s help and guidance, came to dwell in the land of Canaan. He built an altar there and offered a sacrifice to God. 2 Berosus references our ancestor Abram without naming him directly, saying, “In the tenth generation after the Flood, there was among the Chaldeans a just, remarkable man, skilled in heavenly matters.” Hecatæus is even more explicit, writing a whole book on him. Nicolaus of Damascus, in his fourth Book of History, says, “Abram reigned in Damascus; a foreigner who came with an army from the land above Babylon, the territory of the Chaldeans. After a long time, he moved on with his people to what was then called Canaan, now Judea, and his descendants grew numerous, of which we write elsewhere. Even now, Abram’s name is celebrated in Damascus, and there is shown a village named ‘The House of Abram.’”

1 When a famine spread in the land of Canaan, and Isaac found that the Egyptians were abundant in provisions, he considered going there to share in their bounty and to learn from their priests about the gods. He intended either to follow them if they had superior beliefs, or to guide them to better ways if his own proved truer. But knowing he must take Sarah with him, and fearing the Egyptians’ lust for women might lead to his murder, he devised the plan of calling her his sister—telling her likewise, that it would serve their mutual advantage. As soon as they entered Egypt, events went as he anticipated. Sarah’s beauty became famous; Pharaoh, the Egyptian King, hearing about it, wanted to see her and intended to take her. But God thwarted those unfair intentions by inflicting disease on Pharaoh and sparking unrest in his rule. Desperate for a cure, the king’s priests told him his suffering came from God’s anger for wanting to corrupt a stranger’s wife. Afraid, he questioned Sarah, who she was and who accompanied her. Learning the truth, he apologized to Abraham, claiming that thinking she was his sister, he sought an alliance, not lust. He gave Abraham many gifts and allowed him to interact with the wisest Egyptians. From these discussions, Abraham’s reputation for wisdom and insight spread even more. 2 The Egyptians before then differed in religious customs, each despising the other’s rites, but Abraham, in conversing with them, refuted their claims, showing they were groundless. They admired his knowledge and his ability to argue any subject persuasively. He taught them arithmetic and conveyed to them the science of astronomy. For before Abraham arrived in Egypt, they were unfamiliar with these branches of learning. It was through him these came from the Chaldeans to Egypt, and from Egypt, they later passed to the Greeks. 3 Once Abraham returned to Canaan, he divided the land with Lot because their shepherds argued about pastureland for their flocks. He generously gave Lot first choice, himself keeping what was left, namely the lower land beside the mountains, while he lived in Hebron, a city seven years older than Tanis in Egypt. Lot inhabited the plain and the area around the Jordan near the city of Sodom, then a prosperous place but now demolished by the judgment and anger of God, as I will explain in due course.

1 At this period, when the Assyrians ruled over Asia, the people of Sodom flourished in wealth and numbers. Five kings led that land: Ballas, Barsas, Senabar, Sumobor, and the king of Bela. Each commanded his own forces. The Assyrians waged war on them, dividing their troops into four parts under separate generals. When the battle started, the Assyrians prevailed and forced the Sodomite kings to pay tribute for twelve years. In the thirteenth year, the kings rebelled. The Assyrian army attacked once more under commanders Amraphel, Arioch, Chodorlaomor, and Tidal, laying waste to all of Syria and overcoming the Giants’ offspring. Arriving near Sodom, they camped in the valley of the Slimepits. At that time the valley contained bitumen pits, but now, after Sodom was destroyed, it is the Lake Asphaltites, which we will discuss later. When the Sodomites took the field against the Assyrians in a fierce fight, many were killed, and the survivors were taken prisoner, including Lot, who had come to help the Sodomites.

1 Abraham, upon hearing of their plight, worried about Lot, his relative, and also felt compassion for the Sodomites, his neighbors and friends. He hastened to help, and on the fifth night attacked the Assyrians near Dan (the other spring of the Jordan). Striking before they armed themselves, he killed many in their beds, and others, drunk, fled. Abraham chased them for two days, herding them as a group to Hoba, near Damascus, proving that victory doesn’t hinge on numbers but on soldiers’ spirit and courage, for with a mere three hundred and eighteen servants plus three friends, he defeated a massive army. The rest retreated in humiliation. 2 After rescuing the Sodomite captives, including Lot, Abraham came home in peace. The king of Sodom met him in the King’s dale, where Melchizedek, king of Salem (meaning “righteous king,” an apt title, for he truly was righteous) and also priest of God, welcomed him and his men generously, providing abundant provisions.⁠a As they dined, he praised Abraham and blessed God for subduing his enemies beneath him. After Abraham gave him a tenth of his spoils, Melchizedek gladly accepted. The king of Sodom requested that Abraham keep the loot but restore his citizens, and Abraham refused the reward, taking only what his men had already eaten, but still insisting his three friends—Eschol, Enner, and Mambre—take their rightful share. 3 God commended Abraham’s virtue, declaring he would not lose the good things he deserved for such great deeds. Abraham asked what use these blessings were without an heir, since he remained childless. God replied that He would bless him still more, granting him a son, whose descendants would be countless like the stars. Hearing that, Abraham made a sacrifice as God instructed: taking a three-year-old heifer, a three-year-old she-goat, a three-year-old ram, a turtledove, and a pigeon, dividing the three older animals but not the birds. Then, before erecting his altar, as birds of prey swooped down for the carcasses, a divine voice said his descendants would be mistreated for four hundred years in Egypt but would overcome the Canaanites in war and inherit their lands. 4 Abraham lived near an oak named Ogyges in Canaan, not far from Hebron, but was troubled at Sarah’s barrenness. He pleaded with God for a male heir; God promised to give him children just as He had been providing for him since leading him from Mesopotamia. Sarah, following God’s will, presented Abraham with her Egyptian maidservant Hagar so she might bear children by her. But after becoming pregnant, the maidservant gloated and disrespected Sarah, imagining her son would succeed. Abraham surrendered her to Sarah’s discipline, and Hagar fled from harsh treatment. In her despair, she begged God for mercy. A divine angel found her in the wilderness and told her to return, promising that if she accepted this wise counsel, she would have a son who would one day rule the country. If she refused God and kept going, she would perish. Touched by this, Hagar went back, obtained forgiveness, and bore Ishmael, which means “Heard by God,” as God listened to her plea. 5 Ishmael was born to Abraham when he was eighty-six; and when Abraham was ninety-nine, God revealed Himself again, promising a son by Sarah and naming him Isaac, saying many nations and kings would come from him, possessing all of Canaan by war from Sidon to Egypt. He also commanded circumcision of their sons on the eighth day after birth, to keep Abraham’s family free of foreign entanglements. Abraham asked God about Ishmael, whether he might live; God promised Ishmael a long life and that he would become the father of many nations. Abraham then gratefully obeyed. He, all his household, and his son Ishmael were circumcised; Ishmael was thirteen that day, Abraham ninety-nine.

1 At this time, the Sodomites grew arrogant from their riches and good fortune. They sinned against men and offended God, forgetting His favors, hating foreigners,⁠a and engaging in perversions. God was therefore indignant and resolved to punish them for their pride, destroying both their city and their country so nothing would grow from it. 2 Once God decided the fate of the Sodomites, Abraham was sitting near the Oak of Mambre at his tent’s door and saw three angels, mistaking them for travelers. He ran to greet them, urging them to accept hospitality and dine with him. They agreed, so he had fresh cakes made and roasted a calf, serving it under the oak. While they feasted, they asked for his wife Sarah, and when he replied she was inside, they foretold that she would bear a son on their next visit. Sarah, overhearing, laughed, thinking it impossible at her age of ninety—and with Abraham at one hundred. The angels then revealed themselves as divine messengers: one came about the child, two to destroy Sodom. 3 Hearing this, Abraham was distressed for the Sodomites and approached God, begging Him not to destroy the innocent with the guilty. God assured him He would spare all if only ten good people could be found. Seeing no such men existed, Abraham was silent. The two angels entered the city, and Lot invited them to stay with him, for he was generous and hospitable, imitating Abraham’s goodness. When the men of Sodom saw the strangers’ extraordinary beauty, they plotted to abuse them. Although Lot urged them to be decent and honor his houseguests (even offering his own daughters in despair), they refused his pleas. 4 God was angry at their audacious acts and inflicted them with blindness, dooming the Sodomites to destruction. God told Lot of their coming devastation, so he fled with his wife and two virgin daughters; his sons-in-law, believing none of it, stayed behind. God rained lightning upon Sodom, incinerating the city and wiping out the surrounding land. Lot’s wife looked back at the city out of curiosity, though God had forbidden it, and turned into a pillar of salt. I have seen it; it still stands to this day. As for Lot and his daughters, they settled in a small place still called Zoar (Hebrew for “little”). There he lived miserably, short on food and companions. 5 Believing all mankind destroyed, his daughters got Lot drunk and approached him in order to preserve the human race. They conceived sons: the elder daughter named her child Moab (meaning from the father), the younger named hers Ammon (meaning from a relative). Moabites and Ammonites are both in the region of Celesyria, and that is how Lot departed from Sodom.

1 Abraham next moved to Gerar in Palestine, again telling people that Sarah was his sister, still afraid for his safety. Abimelech, the king, fell for Sarah’s beauty and intended to take her, but God prevented him by a serious illness. When his physicians despaired, Abimelech had a dream warning him not to harm the stranger’s wife if he wished to be cured. He summoned Abraham and asked why he had concealed the truth, justifying himself that he would not have acted that way if he had known she was his wife. He gave Abraham land and money, consenting that if he remained, he would be welcomed, or if he chose to depart, he would be sent off with honor. Abraham explained that calling her his sister was no lie, as she was his brother’s daughter, and that fear of his life made him cautious. Abimelech respected this, and they made a covenant, sealed by an oath, to live faithfully, calling the well where they made it Beersheba (the “well of the oath”). Then Abraham stayed in that land. 2 Soon after, Sarah bore Abraham a son, as God foretold. He named him Isaac, meaning “laughter,” recalling her reaction when God announced she would conceive, for she was ninety and Abraham one hundred—making the event even more astonishing. They circumcised Isaac on the eighth day, and this tradition continues among the Jews to this day. As for the Arabs, they circumcise at the age of thirteen, the age at which Ishmael, Abraham’s son by the concubine, was circumcised, about whom I will soon speak further. 3 At first, Sarah was fond of Ishmael (Hagar’s son), treating him almost like her own. But once she had borne Isaac, she feared Ishmael, being older, might harm him after their father’s death, and so urged Abraham to send away Hagar and her son. Initially he refused, thinking it cruel, yet God upheld Sarah’s wish, so Abraham gave Ishmael to Hagar—he still too young to walk—and provisions of water and bread, telling her necessity would guide them. When she used up the water, almost at the point of despair, she placed the boy under a fir tree, unable to watch him die. But a divine angel appeared, directing her to a nearby spring and promising that through her child she would have many blessings, if she remained faithful. She revived her son with help from shepherds. Once grown, Ishmael married an Egyptian woman (as his mother was Egyptian). He had twelve sons—Nabaioth, Kedar, Abdeel, Mabsam, Idumas, Masmaos, Massaos, Chodad, Theman, Jetur, Naphesus, Kadmas—who inhabited the lands from the Euphrates to the Red Sea, calling it Nabatene. They are an Arabian nation, naming their tribes from these men, honored both for their virtue and for descent from Abraham, their father.

1 Abraham loved Isaac greatly, as his only son and the gift of God in his old age. Isaac returned his parents’ devotion, showing every virtue and honoring his mother and father while worshiping God fervently. Abraham found his chief happiness in the prospect of leaving Isaac in good condition after his own death. God, wanting to test Abraham’s devotion, appeared and reminded him of His many blessings: that He had given him victory over enemies and granted him Isaac, the principal joy of his life. God now asked for Isaac as a sacrifice, a holy offering, to show whether Abraham placed God’s command over the life of his child. 2 Abraham reasoned it was not right to disobey God in anything, recognizing that all living creatures held life by God’s grace. He therefore hid his intention from Sarah and all his servants, fearing they might prevent him from obeying God, and took Isaac and two servants, plus a donkey carrying the wood and other items needed for the sacrifice. After two days’ travel, on the third day, seeing Moriah in the distance, he left the servants in the valley and ascended the mountain with Isaac alone. (King David later built the Temple there.) Isaac was then twenty-five. As he gathered stones and wood for the altar, he asked his father where the animal to be sacrificed was. Abraham said God would provide, being able to bring forth abundance from where none existed and to take away from where there was abundance. 3 When the altar was prepared, Abraham said to Isaac, “My son, I long prayed for you. Once you were born, I worked tirelessly for your well-being and took joy in seeing you become a man, hoping to leave you as my heir. Yet, because it is God’s will—who made me your father—that I now give you to Him, accept this consecration with a noble spirit. I offer you not as an ordinary sacrifice, but to God, who deemed you worthy of avoiding death by illness or war. He calls you to Himself with prayers and sacred rites, so that you will assist me in my old age, coming to my aid with God’s favor, for whose honor you are offered.” Isaac, with equally generous resolve, answered that he would not oppose the will of God or his father. So he went willingly to the altar.⁠a 4 But just when Abraham raised the knife, God called his name and forbade him to harm the boy, clarifying He did not desire human blood nor intend to deprive Abraham of a beloved son, only to test his obedience. He promised to reward Abraham’s faith, giving him many more children and declaring Isaac would live a long and happy life, leaving a large heritage to his offspring. They would form many nations, giving their ancestors everlasting renown and inheriting Canaan, envied by all. A ram then appeared for the sacrifice. Reunited in surprise and relief, father and son, after sacrificing the ram, returned to Sarah to live out their days under God’s good favor.

1 Sarah died not long afterward, at the age of one hundred twenty-seven. They buried her in Hebron, the Canaanites publicly granting a burial site. Abraham purchased this piece of land from Ephron of Hebron for four hundred shekels. Both Abraham and his descendants built their tombs there.

1 Abraham later married Keturah, who bore him six sons—Zambran, Jazar, Madan, Madian, Josabak, and Sous—all strong and astute. Their children colonized Troglodytis and parts of Arabia the Happy, up to the Red Sea. One of them, Ophren, is said to have warred against Libya, conquering it; his descendants, who settled there, named it after him: Africa. Indeed, Alexander Polyhistor affirms this, citing Cleodemus the prophet (called Malchus), who wrote an account of the Jews matching Moses’ history. He says Abraham had sons by Keturah: Apher, Surim, Japhran; that Surim gave his name to the Assyrians, and Apher and Japhran gave Africa its name, having assisted Hercules against Libya and Antæus; and Hercules married Aphra’s daughter, fathering Didorus, whose son Sophon founded the Sophacians.

1 When Abraham resolved to find a wife for Isaac (then about forty years old) from among the descendants of his brother Nahor, he sent his oldest servant to arrange the betrothal, making him swear loyalty by placing hands under each other’s thighs and calling on God as witness. The servant traveled a long time through Mesopotamia—difficult in summer due to lack of water, in winter due to mud, and always threatened by robbers. Eventually he reached Haran and, while on its outskirts, met shepherds, boys, and girls near a well. Seeking water, he asked if they knew Laban and if he was still alive. They said Laban was well known and pointed out that his daughter was due there soon, tending her father’s flock. As they spoke, she arrived. The servant prayed that if she was indeed the one Abraham had intended for Isaac, she would grant him water if he asked. 2 Approaching the well, he asked for a drink. All the others refused, saying they needed their water for themselves, but one girl scolded them for their unfriendly behavior and offered the servant water freely. This raised the servant’s hope that God was guiding him, but he sought more proof. Praising her kindness and hospitality, he asked about her family. She answered, “I am Rebecca, daughter of Bethuel (who has passed away), and my brother Laban manages our household with my mother.” Overjoyed, the servant gave her bracelets and ornaments suitable for a virgin, grateful for her generosity in sharing her water. She then invited him to stay with her family. He explained he would pay, not wishing to burden anyone. She assured him they wouldn’t charge, only that she would speak to her brother, who was in charge. 3 As soon as this was over, she introduced the visitor, and for the camels, the servants of Laban brought them in, and took care of them, and he was himself brought in to supper by Laban: and after supper he said to him and to the young woman’s mother, addressing himself to her, “Abraham is the son of Terah, and a relative of yours: for Nahor, the grandfather of these children, was the brother of Abraham, by both father and mother: for this reason he has sent me to you, wanting this young woman to become his son’s wife. He is his legitimate son; and is brought up as his only heir. He could indeed have had the most happy of all the women in that country for him: but he would not have his son to marry any of them; but out of regard to his own relatives, he wanted him to marry here: and I ask you not to disregard his affection and wishes. For it was by God’s will, that other events happened in my journey, and that in this way I found your daughter, and your house. For when I was near to the city, I saw many young women coming to a well; and I prayed that I might meet with this young woman; which has come to pass accordingly. So confirm that marriage, whose betrothal has already been arranged by a divine appearance: and show the respect you have for Abraham, who has sent me with so much concern; in giving your consent to the marriage of this young woman.” At this they understood it to be the will of God, and greatly approved of the offer: and sent their daughter, as requested. Accordingly Isaac married her, the inheritance having now come to him. For the children by Keturah were gone to their own distant homes.

1 Not long afterward, Abraham died, a man of unmatched virtue, dearly loved by God for his piety. He lived one hundred seventy-five years and was buried in Hebron with his wife Sarah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael.

1 After Abraham’s death, Isaac’s wife conceived. When her belly became very heavy, Isaac prayed to God. God responded that she would bear twins, two nations named after these sons, and that the second to appear would surpass the first. Accordingly, she gave birth to twins: the first, very hairy, from head to toe, was named Esau (a name suited to his roughness, since the Hebrews use Seir for such hairiness). The younger, holding his brother’s heel in the birth process, was named Jacob. Their father, Isaac, loved Esau, while their mother, Rebecca, favored Jacob. 2 When famine again afflicted Canaan, Isaac planned to go to Egypt, known for its fertile land, but stopped at Gerar by God’s command. Abimelech, king of the region, welcomed him because Abraham had once lived there and been his friend. Initially, the king treated him well, but envy arose upon seeing how God helped Isaac, so he finally sent him away. Isaac relocated to a valley near Gerar. Digging for water, his shepherds clashed with Abimelech’s men, and Isaac withdrew to avoid fighting. He dug another well, but that too brought more hostility, so he moved again. Ultimately, the king allowed him a well without trouble, which Isaac called Rehoboth, meaning a broad place. The earlier wells he named Escon (strife) and Sitenna (enmity). 3 Isaac’s prosperity increased, making Abimelech fear Isaac might seek revenge for his earlier mistreatment. So he approached Isaac with Philoc, one of his generals, asking to renew their friendship. Isaac, remembering their earlier bond and showing kindness, agreed, and they made a pact over an oath at a well named Beersheba, or the “well of the oath,” still called so by the people of that land. 4 Esau, at age forty, married two Canaanite women—Adah, daughter of Helon, and Aholibamah, daughter of Esebeon—doing so on his own without Isaac’s approval. Isaac disliked the idea of Esau’s marrying among the Canaanites but did not force him to divorce them. Esau, wishing to appease his father, later married Basemmath, Ishmael’s daughter, also without consulting Isaac. 5 Isaac grew old and nearly blind. He called Esau, telling him that besides his failing sight, his advanced age made it difficult to worship God by sacrifice, so he asked Esau to go hunting and prepare him a meal so that he could bless him and pray God’s favor upon him before dying. Esau went, but Rebecca, wanting this blessing for Jacob, told him to kill two kids of the goats and prepare them. She would serve it to Isaac, and Jacob would receive the blessing instead. Jacob worried Isaac might sense the deception, but Rebecca clothed him in goat skins on his arms so he would feel as rough as Esau. Isaac, startled that the voice sounded like Jacob’s but the arms felt like Esau’s, ate the meal and prayed for him, “Lord of all, Maker of all that exists, You promised my father an abundance of good things and honored me likewise. Grant this son success and prosperity, let him be feared by enemies, loved by friends.” 6 Isaac had scarcely finished praying when Esau returned from hunting. Realizing the confusion, Esau pleaded for an equal blessing, but Isaac said all his prayers were gone to Jacob. Esau mourned, and Isaac, moved by Esau’s tears, promised that he would excel in hunting and combat, gaining eternal glory with his descendants, yet must still serve his brother. 7 Rebecca, fearing Esau’s vengeance against Jacob, advised Isaac to send Jacob to marry one of Laban’s daughters in Mesopotamia. Esau, noticing that Isaac loathed the Canaanites, married Basemmath, Ishmael’s daughter, hoping to please him. Yet Isaac still preferred a union for Jacob from their own family.

1 Jacob, following his mother’s advice to find a wife from her brother Laban’s daughters, left for Mesopotamia, because Esau bore him ill will. Traveling through Canaan, he avoided lodging with the locals, sleeping under the open sky with a heap of stones for a pillow. He dreamed he saw a ladder extending from earth to heaven, angels ascending and descending, and God Himself standing above it. God called him by name and said, “Jacob, do not be troubled by your present hardships. You shall receive abundant good things through my guidance. I brought your grandfather Abraham from Mesopotamia when he was driven out by his kin. I blessed your father Isaac and will do no less for you. Proceed on your journey, for the marriage you seek shall succeed, and you will have good children whose numbers will be immense, spreading across the earth and the sea, as far as the sun shines. I will guide you now and in times to come.” 2 Encouraged by this vision, Jacob poured oil on the stones, since there he received the promise of so many blessings. He vowed that if he returned safely, he would sacrifice on that site and give a tenth of what he gained to God. He named the place Bethel, which means “House of God.” 3 Jacob journeyed on to Mesopotamia, eventually arriving in Haran. Meeting some shepherds in the outskirts, along with boys and girls by a well, he waited for water and asked if they knew Laban and whether he lived. They answered that he was well, indeed important in their region, and that his daughter was expected soon with her flock. While they spoke, she came. They pointed Jacob out to her as a stranger asking after her father. The young woman, pleased, asked who he was, from where he came, and what he needed. Hearing of his kinship—he being the son of Isaac and nephew of Laban’s sister—she, recalling stories of her father’s love for her aunt, wept, embraced Jacob, and ran to bring him to her family. 4 When Laban learned of his nephew, he was elated, offering him the best hospitality. Laban asked why Jacob left his aged parents to come so far, pledging to do whatever he could to help. Jacob recounted how Isaac had two sons, twins—himself and Esau—how Esau hated him for receiving their father’s blessing, and how he obeyed his mother by traveling to her relatives, trusting God and her guidance. Laban, delighted, hired him to be head shepherd of his flocks, promising him good wages and help whenever he decided to return home. Jacob agreed, only asking to marry Laban’s daughter Rachel, explaining that he was deeply in love. Laban was content, preferring no other son-in-law, but asked that Jacob work seven years first, so his character might be proved. Jacob consented. After those seven years, a wedding feast was made, but at night, Laban substituted his older, less attractive daughter, Leah, for Rachel. In the dark, and with wine, Jacob did not realize the switch. In the morning, he accused Laban of deceit. Laban asked forgiveness, saying he was obliged by custom to marry the elder daughter first, but promised Rachel too after another seven years of work. Love for Rachel led Jacob to accept. So after another seven years, he wed Rachel. 5 Each daughter had a maidservant, given by her father. Zilpha was Leah’s, and Bilha was Rachel’s. Leah, upset that Jacob loved Rachel more, hoped childbearing might increase his affection. She prayed to God and bore four sons in succession: Reubel (“God’s mercy”), Symeon (“God heard me”), Levi (“the confirmation of their unity”), Judah (“thanksgiving”). Rachel, jealous of her sister’s many children, gave Jacob her maidservant Bilha, who bore Dan (“divine judgment”) and Nephthalim (“wrestlings,” since Rachel strove against Leah by this maneuver). Leah responded similarly, giving Jacob her own maid Zilpha, who had Gad (“fortune”) and Asher (“happy man,” because he added fame to Leah). During harvest, Reubel found mandrakes and gave them to Leah, Rachel asked for some, Leah at first refused, but Rachel promised that Jacob would lie with Leah that night, so Leah conceived Issachar (“hired”), Zabulon (“pledge of goodwill”), and a daughter, Dina. Later, Rachel conceived a son named Joseph (“another added”). 6 During twenty years, Jacob tended Laban’s flocks. He asked Laban’s permission to return home with his wives, but was refused, so he planned a quiet departure. He talked to Rachel and Leah to see if they would follow him. They agreed; Rachel took her father’s household gods (though Jacob had taught her to despise them) to placate him if they were caught. They left secretly with their possessions, wives, children, and a portion of Laban’s livestock, departing without warning. 7 Laban, learning of this after a day, pursued them with a band and caught up on the seventh day, as they rested on a hill at night. But God appeared to Laban in a dream, warning him not to harm Jacob, so at dawn he confronted Jacob peacefully. Accusing Jacob of ingratitude—since he had welcomed him, given him his daughters, and provided so well—Laban demanded why he stole away with his daughters and gods. Jacob explained that he loved his homeland and worried Laban might stop him or harm him if he asked openly. As to the stolen idols, Jacob offered a search, unknowingly condemning Rachel if found guilty. Rachel hid them in her camel’s saddle, claiming she could not rise because of her monthly sickness, so Laban never found them. They made a covenant bound by oaths to keep peace, raising a stone pillar like an altar. For this reason that mountain is called Gilead, and the land likewise. After feasting, Laban returned home.

1 As Jacob continued to Canaan, angels appeared, assuring him of God’s favor. Calling that place the ‘Camp of God,’ Jacob, wary of Esau’s reaction, sent messengers to gauge his brother’s feelings. They were to say, “Jacob, who left so as not to offend you when you were angered, returns now believing old resentments might have subsided. He brings his wives, children, and everything he owns, entrusting himself and them to you. He would consider himself happy to share his God-given prosperity with you.” Esau met him with four hundred men. Alarmed at this large escort, Jacob prayed for divine help and formed his family into groups, some in front, some behind, so if one fell, the other might escape. He also sent lavish presents of livestock in staggered droves to soften Esau’s mood, with instructions for his servants to speak humbly. 2 That night, Jacob moved on, and after his household and flocks crossed the Jabboc River, he remained alone. There an angel appeared, wrestling with him. Jacob persevered until daybreak. The angel praised him, saying, “You have prevailed over a divine messenger, an important sign of your future success, for no one will overwhelm your power.” He changed Jacob’s name to Israel, meaning “one who struggled with a divine angel.” Jacob requested a blessing, so the angel prophesied that his descendants would multiply, never fail, and that he would receive God’s protection. Jacob named the place Phanuel, “the face of God.” Because his hip was hurt in the struggle, from then on he and his descendants have not eaten that sinew. 3 Hearing Esau was near, Jacob arranged his wives and children in front so they might witness any aggression. He went on to meet Esau, bowing down. But Esau had no hostile intent and embraced him, asking about the women and children, inviting Jacob to come live with him. Jacob, saying the flocks were tired, politely declined. Esau returned to Seir, named “roughness” after his own hairiness.

1 Jacob next came to Succoth, meaning “Tents,” then to Shechem in the land of Canaan. During a local festival, his only daughter, Dina, went into the city to see the women’s attire. Shechem, son of King Hamor, saw her, seized her, and violated her. Deeply enamored, he asked his father to arrange a marriage. Hamor approached Jacob, asking him to grant the match. Jacob, unwilling to refuse such high-status suitors yet reluctant to marry his daughter to a foreigner, asked for time. Jacob’s sons, hearing what happened, were furious. Two of Dina’s full brothers, Simeon and Levi, plotted to retaliate. Seizing an opportunity when the Shechemites were relaxed during their festivity, they attacked at night, killing every male including Hamor and Shechem, and rescued their sister. 2 While Jacob, stunned by the violence, severely reproached his sons, God consoled him and commanded him to purify the camp and fulfill the vow he’d made when departing to Mesopotamia, where he had the vision. Searching for anything displeasing to God, Jacob discovered Laban’s gods (Rachel had stolen them but he hadn’t known) and buried them in the ground under an oak in Shechem. Then he traveled to Bethel, offering sacrifice at the spot where he had the dream. 3 Moving on from there, near Ephrata, Rachel died in childbirth, the only one of Jacob’s family not to be buried in Hebron. After a long mourning, he named the newborn son Benjamin (signifying ‘son of the right hand’) to remember her sorrow. These were Jacob’s children—twelve sons and one daughter. Eight legitimate (six by Leah and two by Rachel), four by the maidservants (two each). Their names have already been listed.

1 From there, Jacob reached Hebron, a city among the Canaanites, where his father Isaac lived. They stayed together for a brief time, for Rebecca was no longer living. Isaac soon died after his son’s arrival and was buried by Jacob and Esau in Hebron, in the ancestral burial place. Isaac was a man beloved by God, granted providential blessings after his father Abraham, and he lived to an extremely old age—dying at one hundred eighty-five.